24SG 


UNIV 


.  OF  CALIF.  LIBRARY,  LOS  ANGELES 


\ 


,'v 


LIBRARY  OF 

ARCHITECTURE  AND 

ALLIED  ARTS 


•^Original  Collection  Given  by 
Edwin  Bergstrom 


STUDY     OF 
THE    ORDERS 


AUTHORS 

FRANK    CHOUTEAU    BROWN 

Architect,  Boston 
Author,  "Letters  and  Lettering" 

FRANK  A.  BOURNE,  S.  M.,  A.  A.  I.  A. 

Architect,   Boston 

Special  Librarian.  Department  of  Fine  Arts, 
Public  Library,   Boston 

HERMAN  V.  VON  HOLST,  A.  B.,  S.  B. 

Architect,  Chicago 

Teacher  of  Design  in  the  Department  of  Architecture, 
Armour  Institute  of  Technology 

ADVISER 

J.    R.    GOOLIDGE,    JR.,     A.    M. 

Architect,  Boston 

President  Boston  Society  of  Architects 
Acting  Director,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

EDITOR 

ALFRED     E.      ZAPF,     S.B. 

Secretary  American  School  of  Correspondence 
Chicago 


Compiled  from  the  Instruction  Papers  in  the 
Architectural  Course  cf  ike  American  School  of 
Correspondence  :  :  :  :  :  Chicago,  Illinois 


COPYRIGHT  1906  BY 
AMERICAN  SCHOOL  OF  CORRESPONDENCE 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 
All  Rights  Reserved 


Urban  Planning 
library 


576? 


Acknowledgment 

THE  drawings,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
are  the  work  of  Frank  Chouteau 
Brown,  Architect,  Boston. 

The  text  is  by  Frank  A.  Bourne,  Ar- 
chitect, Boston,  Frank  Chouteau  Brown, 
and  H.  V.  von  Hoist,  Architect,  Chicago, 
with  a  revision  of  Part  I  by  J.  R. 
Coolidge,  Jr.,  Architect,  Boston. 

Illustrations  from  "  The  Brochure  Se- 
ries "  are  reproduced  by  kind  permission 
of  the  Bates  &  Guild  Co.,  Boston. 


PREFACE 


HE  ORDERS  consists  of  three  of  the  regular  In- 
struction Papers  of  the  American  School  of  Cor- 
respondence in  Chicago,  with  the  accompanying 
Plates.  These  Instruction  Papers,  forming  a  sim- 
ple but  comprehensive  treatise  on  "  The  Five  Orders 
of  Architecture,"  were  prepared  with  the  special 
purpose  of  giving  correspondence  students  a  clear,  concise  descrip- 
tion of  the  Classic  Orders  and  the  system  of  proportions  to  which  the 
Orders  were  reduced  by  the  Renaissance  architects — the  system  still 
employed  in  the  best  architectural  offices  to-day  in  reproducing  these 
forms. 

C.  To  acquaint  persons  interested  in  Architecture-  with  the  standard 
of  instruction  offered  by  the  School,  and  to  meet  a  demand  from 
architects  and  draftsmen  for  a  simpler  yet  more  comprehensive  ref- 
erence work  on  the  •  Orders  than  now  available,  these  Instruction 
Papers — originally  intended  exclusively  for  the  students  of  the  School 
— are  offered  to  the  public. 

41.  The  general  method  followed  in  "laying  out"  the  Orders  is  that 
employed  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  but  simplified.  In  ad- 
dition, there  are  a  number  of  valuable  Plates  illustrating  the  methods 
of  Vignola,  Palladio,  Biihlmann,  Mauch,  and  other  authorities.  All 
the  Plates  have  been  carefully  selected,  analyzed,  and  explained  by 
architects  of  acknowledged  professional  standing. 
C,  The  work  contains  a  number  of  unique  features,  such  as  the  in- 
troduction of  a  large  number  of  photographs  of  noted  examples  of 
Classic  and  Renaissance  architecture  illustrating  the  matter  studied  by 


actual  examples,  and  showing  the  relation  of  parts  to  the  whole;  a  com- 
plete, illustrated  Glossary  of  all  the  architectural  terms  in  common  use; 
and  a  comprehensive  Bibliography  of  the  best  literature  on  the  subject. 
Anyone  who  has  had  occasion  to  search  through  the  scattered  reference 
works  and  textbooks  of  the  day,  will  appreciate  the  convenience  of 
these  features. 

C.  A  series  of  test  questions,  consisting  of  the  regular  examination 
papers  of  the  School,  offers  the  reader  the  same  thorough  test  of  his 
knowledge  that  is  given  to  the  students  of  the  School;  and  a  full  and 
complete  index  enables  him  to  turn  instantly  to  any  subject. 
^  The  text  is  illustrated  with  fifty-eight  Plates,  11x13  inches  in  size, 
and  a  large  number  of  drawings  at  a  large  scale,  showing  the  develop- 
ment of  Greek  and  Roman  architecture. 

C.  Over  three  years  have  been  spent  in  the  preparation  of  this  work. 
A  vast  number  of  authorities  were  consulted,  and  an  exhaustive  study 
made  of  the  best  literature  on  the  subject,  much  of  which  is  to  be 
found  only  in  rare  volumes  in  the  great  libraries.  No  expense  or 
time  has  been  spared  to  prepare  a  work  which  should  become  a  stand- 
ard reference  work  invaluable  alike  to  architects,  draftsmen,  designers, 
sheet-metal  workers,  and  persons  in  general  who  have  to  do  with 
architectural  forms  or  who  are  interested  in  drawing  or  the  fine  arts. 
C.  That  this  treatise  may  prove  to  be  some  slight  contribution  to  the 
sum  of  knowledge  on  the  subject,  and  that  it  may  present,  in  a  simple 
and  convenient  form,  more  matter  of  real  value  bearing  upon  the  Five 
Orders  of  Architecture  than  has  heretofore  been  gathered  together  in 
one  publication,  is  the  hope  of  the  editor. 


Contents 

THE  RENAISSANCE  ROMAN  ORDERS  .     Page    11 

THE  CLASSIC  GREEK  ORDERS    .  "     149 

THE  CLASSIC  ROMAN  ORDERS  .  .        "     279 

GLOSSARY           .  377 
BIBLIOGRAPHY    . 

INDEX  "     409 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


RUINS  OF  THE  PARTHENON,  ATHENS Frontispiece 

"  PAGE 

ACANTHUS  LEAF,  TOWER  OF  THE  WINDS 232 

ALBANI,  VILLA,  ROME,  DETAILS 312 

COLUMN  FROM  361 

ALTAR,  ANTIQUE  290 

ANT/E,  GREEK  DORIC  268 

FROM  TOWER  OF  THE  WINDS 272 

ARCADE,  IONIC,   PLAN 124 

FROM  THEATER  OF  MARCELLUS 308a 

ANTONINUS  AND  FAUSTINA,  TEMPLE  o?   ROME,  DETAILS 338 

ARCH,   ROMAN   CONSTRUCTION 278,  281  282,  284,  308a 

BARREL  ARCH 280 

PELASGIC  CONSTRUCTION  -. 281 

ARCH  OF  CONSTANTINE 352 

OF  TITUS 346 

OF  TITUS  AND  COLOSSEUM 347 

OF  TRAJAN 353 


B 

BAALBEC,  SYRIA,  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER,  DOORWAY   290b 

CORINTHIAN  COLUMNS  344a 

BASF,  ROMAN  DORIC  305 

ROMAN  IONIC 317 

ROMAN  CORINTHIAN  327 

ROMAN  CORINTHIAN,  RESTORED  329 

BASILICA  OF  THE  GIANTS,  TEMPLE  OF  ZEUS,  AGKU;EXTUM 282a 

BATHS  OF  DIOCLETIAN,  DETAILS 313 

INTERIOR,  RESTORED 288b 

METHODS  OF  PROPORTION 321 

BORGHESE  PALACE,  ROME 98a 

BRACKET,  CORINTHIAN 345 


c 

CAMPANILE,  CORINTHIAN 109 

CAPITAL,  ASSYRIAN 209 


LIST    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 

PAGE 

CAPITAL,  DORIC  158a 

COMPARISON  OF  GREEK  DORIC  SECTIONS 159 

DORIC,  POMPEII  314 

DORIC  CORNER  215 

IONIC,  DETAILS 53 

IONIC  DECORATED   219 

GREEK  IONIC,  NIKE  APTEROS 213 

GREEK  IONIC,  PORTICO  OF  MINERVA  POLIAS,  ERECHTHEUM 217 

ORNAMENTED  GREEK  IONIC,  ERECHTHEUM 218a 

ROMAN  IONIC,  FROM  TEMPLE  OF  FORTUNA  VIRILIS,  ROME 319 

IONIC  FROM  POMPEII 316 

IONIC  CORNER   215 

IONIC,  FACES   211 

SCAMOZZI 315 

CORINTHIAN  75 

CORINTHIAN,  DETAILS   69,  71 

EARLY  CORINTHIAN  328 

ROMAN  CORINTHIAN,  RESTORED 329 

FROM  TEMPLE  OF  APOLLO,  PHIGALIA  233 

FROM  TEMPLE  OF  APOLLO  DIDYM^US,  MILETUS 234 

FROM  TOWER  OF  THE  WINDS 236 

FROM  THOLOS  AT  EPIDAUROS 242a 

FROM  ANTA,  ERECHTHEUM,  ATHENS 200a 

COMPOSITE,  FROM  AIZANI 348 

CARYATIDES,  PORCH  OF  THE,  ERECHTHEUM 249,  250,  251 

CASTOR  AND  POLLUX,  TEMPLE  OF,  ROME,  COLUMNS  FROM 340a 

TEMPLE  OF,  GIRGENTI 10 

CHIEREGATI  PALACE,  VICENZA  lOOa 

CHORAGIC  MONUMENT  OF  LYSICRATES 238,  239 

COLISEUM,  SEE  COLOSSEUM. 

COLLEONI  PALACE,  VICENZA 96a 

COLONNADE,  DORIC  105 

COLOSSEUM,  EXTERIOR 306 

INTERIOR 307 

WITH  ARCH  OF  TITUS 347 

COLUMN,  DORIC 25 

TUSCAN  20 

GREEK  DORIC  AND  IONIC 179 

DORIC,  DEVELOPMENT  OF 168,  171 

FROM  TEM  PLE  OF  CORINTH 160 

FROM  BASILICA,  P^STUM    161 

FROM  GRAND  TEMPLE,  P^STUM   162 

FROM  TEMPLE  OF  MINERVA,  ATHENS 163 

FROM  TEMPLE  OF  DIANA  PROPYLJEA 164 

FROM  TEMPLE  OF  THESEUS   165 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  FLUTING 172 

IONIC,  DETAILS    212 


xvi  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

COLUMN  (Concluded)  I-AGE 

IONIC,  FROM  TEMPLE  OF  APOI.LO  Ei'icuuius,  PHIGALIA 216 

IONIC  BASES  208 

GREEK  CORINTHIAN   247 

ROMAN  CORINTHIAN   360 

ROMAN  CLASSIC  361 

CORINTHIAN,  FROM  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER,  BAALBEC 344a 

ROMAN   CORINTHIAN,  FROM   TEMPLE  OF   CASTOR  AND   POLLUX, 

ROME   340a 

SUPERIMPOSED,  ROMAN  284a 

SUPERIMPOSED,  GRAND  TEMPLE  AT  P^JSTUM 337 

SUPERIMPOSED,  GREEK  DORIC,  RESTORED 337 

SUPERIMPOSED,  THEATER  OF  MAKCELLUS 308a 

ENGAGED  282a  283,  284a,  308a 

ENTASIS  OF,  METHOD  OF  DETERMINING  257 

COLUMN  AND  PILASTER  RELATIONS,  DORIC  f  45 

IONIC    61 

CORINTHIAN 80 

COLUMN  AND  PILASTER  TREATMENT 270 

CONCORD,  TEMPLE  OF,  GIRCENTI  175 

CONSOLE,  IONIC  62 

CORINTHIAN  83 

CONSTANTINE,  ARCH  OF 352 

CORI,  FRAGMENTS  FROM  EARLY  ROMAN  TEMPLES 302 

DOORWAY  FROM  ROMAN  TEMPLE  355 

TEMPLE  OF  HERCULES  298a 

TEMPLE  OF  HERCULES,  DETAILS  356 

COMPOSITE  ORDER,- COMPLETE  84 

DETAILS,  ROMAN 349 

ROMAN,  METHOD  OF   CONSTRUCTING 343 

CAPITAL,  AIZANI   348 

CORINTH,  TEMPLE  OF,  COLUMN 160 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER,  CAPITAL  1  )ETAILS   69,  71 

CAPITAL 75 

EARLY  CAPITAI 328 

GREEK,  DETAILS 243 

ROMAN,  DETAILS    , 341 

ROMAN  ORDER  85 

ROMAN  ORDER,  AFTER  PAI.LADIO 89 

COLUM  NS,  GREEK  247 

COLUM  NS,  ROMAN   360 

COLUMNS  FROM  TEMPLE  OF  CASTOR  AND  POLLUX,  ROME 340a 

COLUMNS  FROM  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER,  BAALBEC,  SYRIA 344a 

ROMAN  CAPITAL  AND  BASE,  RESTORED 329 

BASES,  ROMAN   327 

ROMAN  METHOD  OF  CONSTRUCTING 343 

ENTABLATURE  DETAILS  77 

DETAILS  FROM  PANTHEON,  ROME  333 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS                      .  xvii 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER  (Concluded)  PAGE 

DETAILS  FROM  TEMPLE  OF  VESTA,  TIVOLI 335 

TEMPLE-  OF  ANTONINUS  AND  FAUSTINA,  DETAILS 338 

TEMPLE  OF  SUN,  DETAILS  ? 338 

TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER  OLYMPUS,  DETAILS 325 

TEMPLE  OF  SATURN,  DETAILS 325 

TOWER  OF  THE  WINDS,  ATHENS  235,  237 

CHORAGIC  MONUMENT  OF  LYSICRATES  238,  239,  241,  261 

THOLOS  AT  EPIDAUROS 242 

TEMPLE  OF  ZEUS,  ATHENS,  RUINS  234a 

TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER,  BAALBEC,  DOORWAY 290b 

COLUMN  AND  PILASTER  RELATIONS  80 

INTERCOLUMNIATION,  ROMAN  366 

CIRCULAR  TEMPLE  129 

BRACKET  345 

CONSOLE 83 

CAMPANILE 109 

ENTRANCE  141 

PEDESTAL  AND  IMPOST,  DETAILS 81 

CYMA  FROM  THOLOS,  EPIDAUROS  192a 

D 

DIANA  PROPYLJEA,  TEMPLE  OF,  ELEUSIS,  PLAN '. 150 

PLAN  OF  PORCH  151 

COLUM  N  FROM  164 

DETAILS 169 

DIOCLETIAN,  BATHS  OF  313 

INTERIOR,  RESTORED 288b 

METHODS  OF  PROPORTION 321 

DOORWAY,  ARCHED,  DORIC  118 

DOORWAY,  ARCHED,  IONIC  93 

ROMAN  TEMPLE,  CORI 355 

TOWER  OF  THE  WINDS 272 

PANTHEON,  ROME  367 

ERECHTHEUM  252,  253,  254 

ROMAN,  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER,  BAALBEC 290b 

DORIC  ORDER,  GREEK 187 

ROMAN 43 

GREEK  TEMPLE,  RESTORED  337 

TEMPLE,  PLAN  OF  144 

ROMAN,  AFTER  PALLADIO 47 

ROMAN,  AFTER  VIGNOLA  51 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  COLUMN  168,  171 

FLUTING,  GREEK  189 

GREEK  DORIC  CAPITAI 159 

COLUMNS,  GREEK  179 

COLUMNS,  DENTICULAR^  MUTULAR  29 


xviii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

DORIC  ORDER  (Concluded)  PAGE 

COLUMN  AND  PILASTER  RELATION   45 

INTERCOLUMNIATION   263,  364 

EN  FABLATURE 33,  37,  304 

FRAGMENTS  OF  ENTABLATURES,  SELINUNTE 190a 

BASES,  ROMAN   305 

MUTULE,  ROMAN   311 

TEMPLE  OF  HERCULES,  CORI,  GREEK  298a 

DETAILS  OF  VILLA  ALBANI,  ROME 312 

CAPITAL  FROM  POMPEII 314 

BATHS  OF  DIOCLETIAN,  DETAILS 313 

F"RIEZE,  PLAN  OF,  GREEK 157 

SECTIONS  THROUGH  COLONNADE,  GREEK  157 

PLAN  OF  O-COLUMNED  PORCH  158 

COMPARISON  OF  CAPITAL  SECTIONS,  GREEK  159 

CORNER  CAPITALS  215 

ANT,E,  GREEK  268 

DOORWAY,  ROMAN  TEMPLE,  CORI  355 

DOORWAY,  ARCHED  118 

CHAPEL    121 

GALLERY  WITH  ARCHES  * 101 

COLONNADED  GALLERY  105 

PAVILION  133 

PEDESTAL  AMD  IMPOST,  DETAILS 41 

E 

ENTABLATURE,  DORIC,  DETAILS   33,      37 

IONIC,  DETAILS  57 

CORINTHIAN,  DETAILS  77 

ROMAN  DORIC  304 

DORIC,  SELINUNTE  190a 

BASILICA  ULPIA,  ROME  358 

ENTASIS,  METHOD  OF  DETERMINING  257 

EPIDAUROS,  THOLOS  AT,  PLAN  242 

CAPITAL  FROM  242a 

DETAILS  265 

ERECHTHEUM,  ATHENS,  PLAN  223 

ENTABLATURE,  DETAILS 225 

BASE  OF  IONIC  COLUMN  208a 

CAPITAL  FROM  ANTA  200a 

IONIC  CAPITAL  FROM  PORTICO  OF  TEMPLE  OF  MINKRVA  POLIAS.  . 

217,    221 

ORNAMENTED  CAPITAL  218a 

RUINS  OF  THE  NORTH  PORCH  224 

DOORWAY,  DETAILS  252,    253 

Wi  NDOW,  DETAILS  253 

DOORWAY  i  N  NORTH  PORCH  254 

PORCH  OF  THE  CARYATIDES  249,  250,    251 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

F  PAGE 

FLUTING,  GREEK  DORIC  189 

IONIC  207 

DEVELOPMENT  OF 172 

FORTUNA  VlRILIS,  TEMPLE  OF,  ROME  318 

CAPITAL  FROM  319 

COLUMN  FROM  361 

FRIEZE,  GREEK  DORIC,  PLAN 157 

G 

GIANTS,  BASILICA  OF  THE,  AGRIGENTUM 282a 

H 

HERCULES,  TEMPLE  OF,  CORI 298a 

DETAILS T-. 356 

I 

INTERCOLUMNIATION,  GREEK  DORIC  263 

GREEK  IONIC 264 

ROMAN  DORIC  88,  364 

ROMAN  IONIC  91,  365 

ROMAN  CORINTHIAN  366 

IONIC  ORDER,  GREEK  205 

ROMAN 63 

ROMAN,  AFTER  PALLADIO 67 

COLUMNS,  GREEK  179 

COLUMN,  DETAILS 212 

CAPITAL,  DETAILS 53 

ENTABLATURE,  DETAILS 57 

PEDESTAL  AND  IMPOST 59 

FLUTING 205 

COLUMN  BASES  208,  317 

FACES  OF  CAPITAL 211 

CAPITAL  DECORATIONS  219 

INTERCOLUMNIATION  264.  365 

PILASTERS,  GREEK  269 

PILASTER  CAP,  GREEK  271 

COLUMN  AND  PILASTER  RELATIONS  61 

CORNER  CAPITALS  215 

GREEK  CAPITAL,  NIKE  APTEROS 213 

SCAMOZZI  CAPITAL 315 

CAPITAL  FROM  POMPEII  316 

COLUMN  FROM  TEMPLE  OF  APOLLO  EPICURIUS,  PHIGALIA 216 

NIKE  APTEROS,  TEMPLE  OF,  RUINS 214a 

TEMPLE  OF  MINERVA  POLIAS,  PRIENE 229 


xx  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Toxic  ORDER  (Concluded)  PAGE 

GREEK  CAPITAL,  PORTICO  OF  MINERVA  POLIAS,  ERECHTHEUM.  .. .  217 

ORNAMENTED  GREEK  CAPITAL,  ERECHTHEUM 218a 

CAPITAL,  TEMPLE  OF  FORTUNA  VIRILIS,  ROME 319 

THEATER  OF  MARCELLUS,  DETAILS  320 

BATHS  OF  DIOCLETIAN,  METHODS  OF  PROPORTION   321 

ARCHED  DOORWAY 93 

ARCADE,  PLAN  124 

CONSOLE 62 

ENTRANCE  MOTIVE  115 

ROUND  TEMPLE  125 

TEMPLE  WITH  PORTICO  . 137 


J 
JUPITER  OLYMPUS,  TEMPLE  OF,  DETAILS  325 


L 

LINTEL  CONSTRUCTION,  GREEK  148 

LYSICUATES,  MONUMENT  OK,  CIIORAC.IC    238,239,  241 

DETAILS  .                                                                                      261 


M 

MAISOX  CARRKF.,  XIMES 336 

MARCELLUS,  THEATER  OF,  ROME 284;i 

DETAILS  30.S,  308;i 

MARS  VENGEUR,  TEMPLE  OF  331 

M IXERVA,  TEMPLE  OF,  ATHENS,  COLUMN  FROM  163 

MINERVA  POLIAS,  PORTICO  OF  TEMPLE  OK  221 

MINERVA  POLIAS,  PRIENE,  TEMPLE  OF 229 

COLUMN  AND  PILASTER  TREATMENT 270 

MONUMENT,  CHORAGIC,  OF  LYSICRATES 238,  239,  241 

DETAILS  261 

MOULDINGS,  ORNAMENTED 199 

Mori  in  \(;s.  Siv  THINS  OF  19,  167 

GRKKK    195 

1\(  I \l  AN 358 

MUTULE,  ROMAN  DORIC   36,  311 


N 

Xn<F.  APTEROS.-TEMPLE  OK,  Rrixs  214a 

CAPITAL  .  213 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xxi 

PAGE 

ORDER,  PARTS  OF  THE 16,    292 

PARALLEL  OK  THE  ORDERS 21,  173,    295 

ORDER,  COMPOSITE,  SEE  COMPOSITE  ORDER. 
ORDER,  CORINTHIAN,  SEE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 
ORDER,  DORIC,  SEE  DORIC  ORDER. 
ORDER,  IONIC,  SEE  IONIC  ORDER. 
ORDER,  TUSCAN,  SEE  TUSCAN  ORDER. 


P.KSTUM,  GRAND  TEMPLE  AT 337 

COLUMN 162 

HASILKA,  COLUMN  161 

PANEL,  DECORATIVE  CARVED   290a 

PANTHEON,  ROME,  EXTERIOR    286 

INTERIOR 287 

DETAILS 333 

MAIN  DOORWAY   367 

COLUM  N  FROM  361 

PARALLEL  OF  THE  ORDERS 21,  173,    295 

PARTHENON,  RUINS    Frontispiece 

FACADE,  RESTORED 166 

CORNER,  RESTORED    166a 

PLAN 153 

PAVILION,  DORIC  133 

PEDIMENT  PROPORTIONS,  SERLIO  AND  VITRUVIUS 363 

PIER,  ROMAN  281,  282,    283 

PIETRO,  SAN,  COURTYARD  or,  CIRCULAR  TKM  PI.E  ix 126a 

PILASTERS,  GREEK  IONIC  269 

PILASTER  CAP,  TEMPLE  OF  APOLLO,  MILETUS  271 

PILASTER  AND  COLUMN  RELATIONS 45,  61,  80,    270 

PONT  DU  GAKD,  NIMES  284 

PORTO  PALACE,  VICENZA 108a 

PROPYL.*:A,  ATHENS,  FRONT  ELEVATION  260 

SECTION  THROUGH   180a 

S 

SATURN,  TEMPLE  OF,  ROME,  DF.TAILS  325 

SCAMOZZI  CAPITAL 315 

SCIPIO,  TOMB  OF 301 

SELINUNTE,  SICILY,  FRAGMENTS  OF  ENTABLATURES  190a 

SOFFIT,  CORINTHIAN  CORNICE  79 

DENTICULAR    CORNICE    40,  312 

STEFANO,  SAN,  CHURCH  OF,  ROME,  ROTUNDA 316a 

STELE  CRESTS,  GREEK  256 

STONE  CONSTRUCTION    , 183,  184 


xxii  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

SUN.  TEMPLE  OF  THE,  ROME,  DETAILS 338 

SUPERPOSITION    96,  98,  100,  103,  107,    108 

T 

TEMPLE,  CIRCULAR,  PLAN  OF 140 

DORIC,  PLAN  OF 144 

EARLY  ROMAN  AT  CORI,  FRAGMENTS 302 

IONIC  ROUND  125 

CIRCULAR,  COURTYARD  OF  SAN  PIETRO,  MONTORIO,  ROME 126a 

IONIC,  WITH  PORTICO  137 

CIRCULAR,  CORINTHIAN    129 

OF  ANTONINUS  AND  FAUSTINA,  ROME 338 

OF  THE  SUN 338 

OF  HERCULES,  CORI,  ITALY 298a,    356 

OF  CASTOR  AND  POLLUX,  GREEK  DORIC 10 

COLUMNS,   ROME   340a 

OF  CONCORD,  GIRGENTI,  SICILY 175 

GRAND,  AT  P^STUM  337 

GREEK  DORIC,  RESTORED 337 

OF  VESTA,  TIVOLI,  DETAILS 335 

OF  DIANA  PROPYL^A,  PLAN  150 

OF  DIANA  PROPYL^A,  PLAN  OF  PORCH  151 

OF  DIANA  PROPYL^A,  DETAILS 169 

OF  FORTUNA  VIRILIS,  ROME  318 

OF  JUPITER,  BAALBEC,  SYRIA,  DOORWAY  290b 

COLUMNS    344a 

OF  JUPITER  OLYM PUS,  ATHENS  325 

OF  SATURN,  ROME 325 

OF  MARS  VENGEUR  331 

OF  MINERVA  POLIAS,  PORTICO 221 

PARTHENON Frontispiece,  153,   166,  166a 

ROCK-CUT,  EGYPTIAN    149 

OF  THESEUS,  ATHENS   153,    177 

OF  ZEUS,  BASILICA  OF  GIANTS,  AGRIGENTUM 282a 

THEATER  OF  MARCELLUS  308,    320 

COLUMNS  AND  ARCHES   308a 

THEATER,  ROMAN,  RESTORED  288a 

THESEUS,  TEMPLE  OF,   ATHENS 153,    177 

COLUMN   FROM    165 

T  HOLDS  AT  El'IDAUROS,  PLAN  242 

CAPITAL  FROM   242a 

DETAILS  265 

CYMA  FROM   192a 

TITUS,  ARCH  OF  346 

TITUS,  ARCH  OF,  AND  COLOSSEUM  347 

TOMB  OF  SCIPIO  301 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xxiii 

PAGE 

TOWER  OF  THE  WINDS,  ATHENS  235,  237 

CAPITAL  FROM 236 

DOORWAY  AND  ANT.E  272 

TRAJAN,  ARCH  OF 353 

TRIGLYPH  35,  310 

TUSCAN  ORDER,  ARCADE  97 

COLUMN 20 

ENTABLATURE  AND  DETAILS 25 

GUARDHOUSE    113 

WOODEN  TEMPLE   . . . .- 210 

V 

VASE,  ANTIQUE 290 

VAULT,  ROMAN   280,  281 

PELASGIC  281 

VESTA,  TEMPLE  OF,  TIVOLI 335 

VICENZO,  SAN,  CHURCH  OF,  FAC.ADE 109 

w 

WINDOW  DETAILS,  ERECHTHEUM   ."  253 

WINDS,  TOWER  OF  THE,  ATHENS 235,  237 

CAPITAL  FROM 236 

DOORWAY  AND  ANT^E 272 

WOOD  CONSTRUCTION  182,  184 

z 

ZEUS,  TEMPLE  OF,  AGRIGENTUM,  BASILICA  OF  GIANTS 282a 

ZEUS,  TEMPLE  OF,  RUINS,  ATHENS 234a 


H«-inaliiiriu  <'oni.-r  i.f  (Jr.-.-k  Doric  Ti-mj»li-  ..f  Castor  ami  Pollux.  (,iri;i-iiii.  Sioily. 

and  i.ini.-i  I'miripi.-  <>r  (Jr«-ek  Tnniiii-  Architecture. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS. 


THE  ROMAN  ORDERS. 

Introduction.  This  textbook  011  the  Roman  Orders  is  largely 
an  adaptation  and  simplification  of  a  work  published  in  1870, 
entitled  "An  Analysis  of  the  Five  Orders"  by  F.  Laureys,  architect, 
and  professor  at  the  Royal  Academy  and  Industrial  School  of 
Brussels.  Professor  Laureys  has  taken  the  standard  orders  as 
shown  in  the  plates  from  the  better  known  work  by  Vignola,  and 
has  further  elaborated  their  system  of  construction.  He  has 
explained  in  detail  many  parts  of  the  plates  and  orders  of  Vignola, 
which  that  authority  has  left  vague  or  indeterminate,  and  has 
generally  succeeded  in  attaining  a  more  distinctive  type-form  in  the 
instances  where  he  has  chosen  to  deviate  from  the  original.  The 
three  order  plates  from  Vignola  may  be  considered  as  "key-plates" 
showing  the  proper  relation  of  the  more  detailed  drawings  adapted 
from  the  elaborate  system  of  Professor  Laureys,  and  the  proper 
assemblage  of  the  different  parts  of  the  order  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  give  a  comprehensive  idea  of  the  whole. 

The  included  plates  from  Palladio  furnish  alternative  versions 
of  each  of  the  three  orders  and  are  valuable  as  showing  in  many 
instances  the  authority  for  the  changes  which  Professor  Laureys 
has  chosen  to  make  from  Vignola.  Vignola  and  Palladio  were 
practically  contemporaneous  Italian  architects  living  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  the  first — possibly  better  described  as  a  thinker 
and  analytic  theorist — residing  in  Rome;  while  Palladio  worked 
in  the  north  of  Italy  and,  either  through  better  opportunity 
or  a  differing  temperament,  has  amply  proved  by  his  practices  the 
value  of  his  works. 

It  must  be  understood  that  these  so-called  Roman  orders  are 
not  the  orders  used  by  the  Classic  Roman  builders  in  any  instance, 
but  are  versions  made  in  this  sixteenth  century  from  the  then- 
existing  buildings  and  remains  of  Roman  work,  and  each  of  these 


THE  ROMAN  ORDERS 


orders  was  intended  to  become  a  "type-form,"  or  composite  of  the 
best  features  of  the  varying  ancient  examples.  They  are,  therefore, 
more  distinctively  products  of  the  Renaissance  and  might  more 
appropriately  be  termed  the  Renaissance  Classic  orders,  but  in 
contradistinction  to  the  still  earlier  and  radically  different 
creations  of  artistic  Greek  workmen,  these  examples  are  known  as 
the  Roman  orders.  Indeed,  however  much  they  may  differ  in 
detail  from  the  Roman  originals,  they  are  carried  out  in  as  close 
an  approximation  to  the  spirit  of  Roman  work  as  would  be  possible 
at  any  later  date,  but  differ  radically  from  the  spirit  and 
intent  of  the  preceding  Greek  work,  upon  which  the  Romans  had 
in  turn  founded  and  developed  their  application  and  use  of  the 
orders. 

Some  buildings  are  the  logical  outcome  of  the  needs  they  are 
designed  to  serve,  or  of  the  nature  of  the  materials  used  in  them ; 
others  have  t>een  evolved  by  the  artistic  genius  of  different  peoples, 
and  have  gradually  been  perfected  in  the  advance  and  progress  of 
civilization  and  art.  Such  buildings  possess  an  aesthetic  or 
artistic  character,  and  are  the  natural  expression  of  particular 
peoples  at  a  given  stage  of  their  civilization. 

The  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  the  most  cultivated  nations  of 
ancient  times,  brought  their  architectural  forms  to  a  very  high 
degree  of  perfection.  The  destruction  of  ancient  civilization  by 
the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  5th  century  A.  D.  and  the 
spread  of  Christianity,  caused  the  complete  disappearance  of  Greek 
and  Roman  architecture  during  several  centuries.  This  period  is 
called  the  Middle  Ages  and  lasted  until  the  15th  century,  but  dur- 
ing this  time  a  new  civilization  was  developing  and  producing  an 
architecture,  which  in  certain  countries  (notably  in  France) 
attained  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection. 

Tn  the  15th  century,  however,  the  study  of  ancient  literature 
brought  about  an  intellectual  reaction  which  led  both  science  and 
art  into  sympathy  with  Greco-Roman  antiquity.  Architecture 
then  discarded  the  artistic  forms  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  adopted 
new  forms  derived  from  the  remains  of  ancient  Rome.  This  period 
was  called  the  Renaissance,  and  from  it  we  may  date  the  academic 
study  of  architecture,  based  on  the  architecture  of  Greece  and  of 
Rome  To  the  architectural  style  at  this  time  adopted  as  a  standard 


THE    ROMAN    ORDERS 


for  study  in  the  classroom,  has  been  given  the  designation  "Class- 
ical," and  as  the  principles  of  classical  architecture  are  the  easiest 
to  formulate  and  retain,  it  is  most  helpful  to  begin  with  the  study 
of  these.  An  accurate  knowledge  of  classical  architecture  is 
essential  to  the  study  of  all  other  styles. 


1.  Architecture    is    the   art   of   designing   and    constructing 
buildings. 

2.  The  designing  of  buildings  consists  in  a  graphic  (or  plas- 
tic) representation  of  their  intended  shapes  and  sizes. 

3.  An  architect  uses  mechanical  drawing  to  express  his  ideas 
and  to  record  exactly  the  size  and  shape  of  the  object  represented. 

4.  In  mechanical  drawing,  the  instruments  used  to  draw  the 
straight  lines  and  the  curves  which  express  the  forms  of  objects, 
are,  among  others,  the  straight  edge,  triangle  and  compass. 

5.  In  general,  full  straight  lines  indicate  visible  edges,  and 
broken  or  dotted  lines  indicate  relations  of  different  parts,  such 
as  the  axis  or  center-line  of  a  street  or  building  or  the  distance 
covered  by  a  figured  meas- 
urement. 

6.  Horizontal  lines  are 
drawn  along  a    T-square 
whose  head  rests  against  the 
left  side  of  a  drawing  board. 
Vertical  and  sloping  lines  are 
drawn  against  a  triangle  rest- 
ing   against    the    T-square. 
(Fig.  1). 

7.  Two  horizontal  lines 
intersecting  two  vertical 

lines,  all  of  equal  length,  form  a  square.  If  its  opposite  corners  are 
connected  by  straight  lines,  called  diagonals,  the  intersection  of  these 
diagonals  gives  the  center  of  the  square.  A  horizontal  and  a  vertical 
line  may  be  drawn  through  this  center,  and  then,  by  setting  the 
point  of  the  compass  at  the  center  and  opening  the  compass  along 
either  of  these  lines  to  the  sides  of  the  square,  a  circle  may  be 


13 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


drawn  which  will  be  exactly  inscribed  within  the  square.  The 
square  itself  will  be  divided  into  four  small  squares,  each  of  which 
contains  a  quadrant  or  quarter  circle.  (C,  plan,  Fig.  2.) 


-£> 


Fig.  2. 

8.  The  circle  is  divided  into  B<K)  parts,  which  are  used  for 
measuring  angles  or  the  difference  in  direction  between  any  two 
lines  that  meet  in  the  center  of  the  circle.  For  convenience,  an 
instrument  called  a  protractor  is  sometimes  used,  which  consists  of 
a  half-circle  divided  into  180  parts  e;illcd  degrees  (°).  A  vertical 
lino  from  the  center  of  the  circle  will  cut  the  curve  or  circumfer- 


14 


ence  at  a  point  90°  above  the  horizontal,  and  the  diagonals  of  the 
square  in  which  the  circle  is  inscribed  will  divide  each  angle  of 
90°  into  two  angles  of  45°  each. 

9.  As  it  is  impracticable  to  draw  many  objects  at  their  full 
size,  an  arbitrary  scale  is  used  to  enable  the  drawing  to  be  made  at 
%,  \,  iV*  §V»  <>r  some  other  fraction  of  its  true  size.     Drawings  at 
the  scale  of  \  inch  to  the  foot  reproduce  each  dimension  of  a,n 
object  at  y§-  of  its  true  size.     The  system  of  drawing  things  "  tq 
scale  "  enables  us  to  make  accurate  drawings  at  any  convenient 
size. 

10.  To  make  pictures  of  objects  in  such  a  way  as  to  express 
accurately  the  size  and  shape  of  every  part,   three  drawings  are 
usually  necessary — a  plan,  a  section,  and  an  elevation — the  plan 
to  show  widths  and  lengths,  the  section  to  show  widths  and  heights, 
the  elevation  to  show  lengths  and  heights. 

11.  A  drawing  looks  better  when  its  perpendicular  center  is 
half-way  across  the  paper  and  its  bulk  placed  slightly  above  the 
horizontal  center  of  the  sheet.     Begin  then  by  finding  a  point  in 
the  paper  half-way  between  the  sides,  and  through  this    center 
draw  a  vertical  line  —  the  vertical  axis  of  the  drawing.     Layout 
the  plan,  the  elevation,  or  the  sum  of  the  two  together  with  the 
space  between  them,  so  that  half  the  finished  work  shall  be  on 
each  side  of  the  vertical  axis. 

12.  In  mechanical  drawing,  it  is  best  to  begin  by  indicating 
the  axes  or  center  lines  of  objects  in  plan,  section  and  elevation. 
On  either  side  of  these  axes  lay  out  one-half  of  the  width  or  depth 
of  the  objects  represented. 

13.  A  pier  or  pillar  is  a  mass  of  stone,  wood  or  metal  stand- 
ing on  end  and  used  as  a  support.     (Fig.  2,  0.) 

14.  A"  lintel  is  a  piece  of  stone,  timber,  or  metal  laid  flat  upon 
two  pillars  so  as  to  form  an  opening  or  bay.     (Fig.  2,  E.) 

15.  A  string  course  is  a  horizontal  band  of  stone,  brick,  or 
other  building  material  projecting  beyond  the  face  of  a  wall.   (Fig. 
2,F.) 

16.  The  first  exercise,  Fig.  2,  shows  two  pillars  C  and  D, 
carrying  a  lintel  E,  above  which  is  a  string  course  F.     The  plan 
shows  the  width  and  the  depth  of  the  pillars  C  and  D.     It  shows 
that  pillar  D  is  square  and  that  pillar  C  is  eight  sided  (octagonal.) 


15 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


Cornice, 


It  also  shows  that  these  two  pillars  are  set  along  a  straight  line  or 
axis  (A-B)  having  the  same  direction  as  two  of  their  sides.  The 
section  shows  the  vertical  position,  the  depth  and  the  height  of 

the  pillars,  the  width  and  the 
height  of  the  lintel  E,  which 
rests  on  the  pillars  so  as  to  line 
with  their  face ;  and  last  of  all 
the  height  and  the  width  of  the 
string  course  F,  with  its  projec- 
tion beyond  the  lintel  E.  The 
elevation  shows  the  general  ar- 
rangement of  pillars  and  lintel 
as  seen  from  an  arbitrary  view- 
point directly  in  front.  It  shows 
that  the  two  pillars  are  upright 
or  plumb,  indicates  the  shape  of 
the  space  between,  and  gives  the 
length  of  the  lintel  and  of  the 
string  course. 

17.  All  the   parts   of   this 
drawing  have  definite   relations 
of  size  which  are  called  propor- 
tions.    Each  pillar  is  one  unit 
and     a-half     wide,     one     unit 
and  a-half  deep  and  five  units 
and  a-half  high.    The  space  be- 
tween   the   pillars   is   two    and 
three-quarter  units  wide  and  five 
and  one-half  high;  its  width  is, 
therefore,    one-half    its    height. 

18.  When  a  pillar  is  cylin- 
Fig-  3.                             drical  or  rounded,  it  is  called  a 

column  and  is  divided  into  parts,  the  major  part  being  termed  the 
shaft.  (Fig.  3).  The  shaft  is  the  portion  extending  between  the 
base  and  the  capital,  or  between  the  capital  and  the  support  upon 
which  the  column  rests.  The  shaft  generally  rests  upon  a 
projecting  block  or  base  included  as  part  of  the  column,  and  is 
crowned  witli  another  projection  called  a  capital. 


Cap 


Die.- 


16 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


19.  Columns  are  connected  to  one  another  overhead  by  a  tim- 
ber or  stone  called  the  architrave.     Generally  there  is  above  the 
architrave  a  plain  space,  called  the  frieze,  lining  with  the  neck  of 
the  column  below,  and  above  the  frieze  a  projecting  mass  that  com- 
pletes the  whole  and  is  called  the  cornice.     The  architrave,  frieze, 
and  cornice  taken  together  are  called  the  entablature.     A  column 
with  an  entablature  constitute  an  Order  of  Architecture. 

20.  Sometimes  an  Order  of  Architecture  is  set  upon  a  mass 
of  a  certain  height  which  is  called  the  pedestal.     The  pedestal 
often  has  a  base,  and  a  cornice  or  crowning  member  called  a  cap. 
The  space  between  the  base  and  the  cap  is  called  the  die  of  the 
pedestal. 

21.  There  are  sometimes  used  at  the  corners  of  buildings,  or 
elsewhere  against  a  wall,  flat  pillars  having,  like  the  column,  a  base 
and  a  capital.     These  pillars  are  called  pilasters. 

22.  For   the   sake  of   elegance  and  lightness,  the  shafts   of 
columns  and  pilasters  are  generally  made  smaller  at  the  top  than 
at  the  bottom.     This  prevents  the  shafts  from  appearing  clumsy. 
They  do  not,  however,  taper  all  the  way  from  the  base  upward,  but 
only   from    a   point  one-third  the   height  of  the  shaft  above  the 
base.     Above  this  point  the  outline  of  a  column  or  pilaster  shaft 
is  a  gentle  tapering  curve.     This  swelling  curve  or  taper  is  called 
the  "entasis"  of  the  column. 

23.  It  must  be  noted  that  the  diminution  of  the  pilaster  is 
much  less  than  that  of  the  column,  and  that  in   some  cases  the 
pilaster  is  of  the  same    width  at  the  neck  as  at  the  base.     As 
specifically  shown  hereafter,  there  are  certain  relations  between  the 
necks  and  bases  of  columns   and  pilasters  of  each  of  the  Orders. 
Occasionally,  where  a  pilaster,  is  used  alone  upon  the  corner  of  a 
building  and  not  in  immediate  association  with  a  tapered  column, 
the  pilaster  shaft  is,  for  obvious  reasons,  of  the  same  width  at  the 
neck  as  at  the  base.     See  plates  XXVII  and  XXVIII. 

24.  When  square   pillars  carry  vaults  or  arches  instead  of 
lintels,  the  pillars  are  called  piers  (Fig.  4).     If  a  support  is  square 
or  oblong  in  plan,  and  its  thickness  in  relation  to  its  height  is 
considerably  more  than  the  thickness  of  a  column,  it  is  called  a 
pier  even  though  it  carries  a  lintel.     When  a  pier  is  topped  by 
a  projecting    stone   or   series    of   mouldings  from  which  an  arch 


17 


10 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


springs,  this  projection  is  called  the  impost,  and  the  projecting 
band  or  border  that  is  often  placed  around  the  edge  of  the  arch 
is  called  an  archivolt.  Piers  generally  rest  upon  a  base  or  plinth. 


-ELEVATION'; 

i 


I 
1 

Pier- 

PlmtX,. 

i 

\\ 

I'. 

1 

i  i 

!  1 

\SECQND- 
-EXERCISE-. 


-P.LAN- 


25.  An  arch  IB  a  support  constructed  of  separate  stout -s, 
units,  or  voussoirs,  with  its  center  higher  than  its  two  ends,  and 
of  an  outline  which  is,  in  part  or  entirely,  a  circle,  or  a  curve  laid 
out  from  one  or  more  centers.  A  vault  is  a  continuous  arch  roofing 
over  a  room  or  passage,  whose  length  is  considerably  greater  than 
its  width.  A  series  of  arches  in  succession  opening  upon  the 
space  covered  by  a  vault,  may  be  called  an  arcade. 


18 


THE    ROMAN    ORDERS 


11 


26.  Note  the  distinction  between  the  lintel,  a  single  hori- 
zontal member  carrying  a  superimposed  weight  to  the  piers  by  its 
own  strength,  and  the  arch,  a  curved  construction,  which  carries  a 
superincumbent  weight  by  transferring  its  load  to  the  piers  or 
supports  from  which  it  springs,  but  unlike  the  lintel,  adding  a 
certain  lateral  "thrust""  which  the  supports  must  resist. 


•CROWNING- 


A--CAVETTO- 

•B--CONOi- 

•C-  CYMA-RiCTA.- 

•D-  -CYMA-RICTA- 

E--QUAJOTR. -ROUND 

-F-  -OVOLC- 

•Q-  ECHINUS  • 

•H -CYMA-REVtRSA- 

•I  •  -HALF-ROUND- 

•J- TORUS- 


BINDING- 


•K-  THUMB- 

•L-mLF-HOLLOW 

•M-FIUET- 

•N  BEAD- 

•O  SCOTIA- 

P-CAVETTO- 

q  SCAPE.  - 


•SEPARATING- 


•  3-  CWAREVERSA 
•T-OVOLO- 


Fig.  5. 

27.  Bases,  capitals,  lintels,  cornices,  imposts,  and  archivolts 
are  composed  of  separate  members  of  straight  or  curved  profiles, 
and  these  members  are  called  mouldings. 

28.  Classical  mouldings  may  be  divided  into  five  classes: 
crowning,  supporting,  binding,  separating  and  prone.     The  mould- 
ings most  frequently  used  are  the  quarter  round,  Fig.  5  (E);  the 
cove  or  cavetto,  (A) ;  the  torus  or  half  round,  ( J) ;  the  cynia,  (C) ; 


19 


12 


THE    ROMAN    ORDERS 


Fig.  G. 


the  ogee  or  cyma  reversa,  (H) ;  and 
the  scotia,  (O).  The  quarter  round, 
cove  and  torus  are  simple  mould- 
ings whose  outline  is  an  arc  of  a 
circle;  the  cyma,  ogee  and  scotia 
are  composite  mouldings  outlined 
by  the  arcs  of  two  or  more  circles. 
The  fillet  (M),  while  never  occupy- 
ing an  important  position,  is  contin- 
ually used  to  finish  oft8  or  to  separ- 
ate the  more  important  mouldings. 

29.  Classical  architecture  in- 
cludes five  Orders  that  differ  in  the 
proportions  of  their  columns  and 
in  richness  of  their  ornamentation. 
These  Orders  have  long  been  called 
the  Tuscan  Order,  (Fig.  6);  Doric 
Order,  Ionic  Order,  and  Corinthian 
Order,    (Plate    I)  and    Composite 
Order,  (Fig.  17).     The  Doric,  Ionic 
and  Corinthian  orders  are  the  most 
important,  as  they  are  now  in  more 
general  use. 

30.  The  five  orders  have  one 
proportion   in   common,   viz.:    the 
relation  of  the  height  of  the  column 
to  the  height  of  the  entablature. 
The  entablature  in  all  five  orders 
is  one  quarter  the  column  height. 
The  height  of  the  column  in  any 
order    is   therefore  the   height  of 
four  entablatures,  and  the  height 
of    the    entablature,    although     a 
variable  quantity,  will  always  bear 
a  certain  relation  to   the  general 
height  of  the  order. 

31.  The  height  of  the  entab- 
lature divided    into  one   hundred 


20 


'DORIC 


IONIC- 


PLATE  I. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  I.) 


21 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS  13 

parts  establishes  a  scale  which  may  be  used  in  determining  the ' 
proper  proportions  of  all  parts  of  the  order.     This  scale  unit  is 
called  the  Entablature  or  "En"  and  its  one  hundred  parts  are, 
where  necessary  to  show  more  minute  divisions,  sub-divided  into 
tenths  which  are  expressed  decimally. 

32.  Another  system  of  measurements  which  is  often  used  is 
based  upon  a  unit  called  the  "Module"  which  is  always  equal  to 
the  radius  of  the  column  shaft  at  the  base.     This  unit,  like  the 
"En,"  may  vary  in-  different   examples   but  will  always   have  a 
definite  relation  to  the  order  as  a  whole  in  any  particular  case.   The 
"Module"  is  sometimes  subdivided  into  twelve  parts,  sometimes 
into  eighteen  and  sometimes  into  thirty,  depending  upon  the  order 
considered  and  the  system  of  measurement  to  be  adopted.     It  is, 
therefore,  not  so  reliable  a  unit  as  the  "En/'  and  the  latter  will  be 
used  in  this  work.     Some  of  the  plates  from  Vignola  and  Palladio, 
however,  are  drawn  according  to  the  "Module"  system.     It  is  only 
necessary  to  remember  that  the  "Module"  is  always  equal  to  the 
semi-diameter  at  the  base  of  the  column, 

33.  The  figured  dimensions  of  a  drawing  are  written  along 
vertical  lines  in  measuring  heights,  and  along  horizontal  lines  in 
measuring  widths.    A  figured  drawing  is  one  whose  dimensions  are 
expressed  in  figures,  and  the  extent  covered  by  each  measurement 
is  denoted  by  dotted  measuring  lines  and  by  spurs  or  arrow  heads, 
two  of  which  when  meeting  form  a  cross. 

34.  The  most  striking  difference  between  the  Orders  is  in 
the  proportions  of  the  columns,  whose  heights,  as  already  noted, 
are  equal  to  four  entablatures,  but  whose  diameters  just  above  the 
bases  are  as  follows: 

Tuscan  order,         55  parts  of  the  Entablature  or  "En." 
Doric  order,  50     "         "  "  " 

Ionic  order,  45     "  " 

Corinthian  order    40     "  "  " 

Composite  order    40     "  "  " 

From  the  Tuscan  to  the  Corinthian  Order  the  thickness  of  the 
column  decreases  evenly  by  five  parts  at  each  step. 

35.  The  shafts  of  columns,  as  we  have  already  seen,  are  less 
thick  at  the  capital  than  at  the  base.     The  upper  diameter  of  the 
columns  of  the  different  orders  is :     for  the — 


14  THE    ROMAN    ORDERS 

Tuscan      Order,  48  parts. 
Doric  "         -ii    " 

Ionic  "         39    " 

Corinthian  "         36    " 
Composite  "         36    " 

36.  The  Tuscan  and  Doric  columns  have  one  relation  in  com- 
mon,— the    height   of   their   capitals,  which    is  twenty-six.     The 
cornice  in  both  these  orders  has  a  height  of  thirty-seven. 

37.  The  entablatures  of  the  Ionic.  Corinthian  and  Composite 
orders  have  certain  general  proportions  in  common,  and  all  the 
general  proportions   of   Corinthian   and  Composite   columns   are 
identical. 

38.  When  orders  are  set  upon  pedestals,  the  latter  must  har- 
monize in  their  proportions  and  decoration  with  the  orders  carried 
by  them.     The  height,  however,  is  variable,  being  generally  pre- 
scribed by  the  practical  requirements  of  each  building.     A  good 
average  height  is  1  En  40  parts  or  140  parts.    Although  pedestals 
are  not  component  parts  of  the  orders  it  is  convenient  to  call  them 
according  to  their  characteristics,  Tuscan  pedestals,  Doric  pedes- 
tals, Ionic  pedestals,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be.     The  several  orders 
differ  in  the  complexity  of  their  mouldings  and  the   richness   of 
their  ornamentation. 

TUSCAN  ORDER. 

39.  Although  it  has  been  deemed  best  to  restrict  this  text- 
book to  a  consideration  of  the  three  Roman  orders  termed  the 
Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian,  the  simpler  Tuscan  Order  is  shown 
sufficiently  in  detail  to  enable  the  student  to  use  it  in  the  exer- 
cises as  required.     The  simplicity  of  its  mouldings  and  the  com- 
paratively few  lines  required  to  express  its  component  parts  seem 
especially  to  fit  this  order  for  the  earlier  required  drawings.     The 
general  proportions  of  the  Tuscan   Order    are  shown  in   Fig.  6, 
while  the  details  may  be  more  carefully  studied  in  the  full  page 
drawing,  Plate  II 

40.  The  shaft  of  the  column  has  at  its  lower  extremity  a  pro- 
jecting member  called  the  listel,  surmounted  by  a  curved  mem- 
ber called  the  conge"  or  cove,  which  is  itself  a  continuation  of  the 
outline  of  the  column  shaft.     The  listel  rests  directly  upon  the 


TUSCAN-ORDER 


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iCAP- 


f-ENTABLAr 
I-TVREAND- 


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PLATE  II. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  II.) 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS  15 

base  and  is  three  parts  in  height  and  the  same  in  projection,  there- 
fore the  siirmounting  conge  is  in  outline  just  a  quarter  of  a  circle. 

41.  The  height  of  the  base  without  the  listel  is  26  parts, 
divided  between  the  plinth,  which  is  14  and  the  torus  which  is  12. 
Since  a  torus  has  the  form  of  a  semi-circle,  its  projection  is  one- 
half  the  height,  that  is  to  say  six,  which — with  the  projection  of 
the  listel — makes  the  total  projection  of  the  base  beyond  the  lower 
part  of  the  shaft  nine  parts. 

42.  The  projection  of  the  base  determines  the  width  of  the 
die  of  the  pedestal  whose  face  corresponds  to  the  face  of  the  plinth 
above,  and  it  is  from  this  face  that  the  projections  of  its  cap  arid 
base  are  measured.     These  projections  and  moulding  sections  are 
shown  at  the  left  of  the  drawing  in  Plate  II. 

43.  The  shaft  of  the  column  is  terminated  below  the  capital 
by  a  moulding  composed  of  a  cong6,  a  fillet,  and  a  small  torus 
which  is  called  a  bead;  these  mouldings  taken  together  are  termed 
the  astragal. 

44.  The  Tuscan  capital  is  very  simple,  and  is  composed  of 
three  principal  parts.     Above  the  astragal  occurs  the  necking,  8 
parts  in  height  and  ending  in  a  cong6.    Then  comes  a  fillet  2  parts 
high.     Above  this  is  the  quarter-round  6.5  parts  in  height  and  of 
equal  projection.     The  upper  part  of  the  capital  is  composed  of 
the  abacus,  ending  in  a  conge  and  fillet,  the  whole  9.5  parts  high. 
The  abacus  is,  like  the  plinth  of  the  base,  square  in  plan.     The 
total  projection  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  abacus  from  the  face  of 
the  necking  is  10  parts. 

45.  The  architrave  is  composed  of  a  single  face,  terminated 
by  a  cove  and  a  listel.     The  total  height  of  the  architrave  is  thirty 
parts,  of  which  twenty-five  are  given  to  the  face  and  cove,  and  five 
to  the  listel.     The  projection  of  the  listel  is  four  parts. 

46.  The  frieze  of  the  Tuscan  Order  is  thirty-three  parts  in 
height,  and  is  terminated  at  the  top  by  a  congeV 

47.  The  cornice  is  composed  of  three  principal  parts:  the 
quarter-round,  the  corona  and  the  cavetto.     To  each  of  these  parts 
is  also  given  a  fillet  or  listel  to  finish  or  separate  it  from  the  adja- 
cent mouldings.     An  alternative  entablature  is  shown  upon  the 
same  plate,  lining  with  the  one  just  described. 


10  THE    ROMAN    ORDERS 

48.  On   this  plate  (II)  are   also  shown   the  details   of   two 
imposts  and  an  archivolt  which  may  ba  employed  in  the  decorated 
arcades  of  the  Tuscan  Order.     The  imposts  are  twenty-four  parts 
in  height,  and  the  archivolt  is  thirty  parts  wide. 

DORIC  ORDER. 

49.  There  are  two  styles  of  the  Doric  Order,  the  Denticular 
Order  and  the  Mutular  Order.     The  difference  between  these  two 
styles  is  purely  decorative  and  will  be  explained  in  the  course  of 
this  analysis. 

50.  The  Doric  column,  more  elegant  than  that  of  the  Tuscan 
Order,  is  sometimes  fluted  with  segmental  channels,  the  intersec- 
tion of  which  forms  a  sharp  raised  edge  or  "arris."     These  channels 
are  always  twenty  in  number,  and  are  so  placed  that  one  is  always 
seen  in  the  center  of  the  column  on  each  of  its  four  faces. 

51.  To   draw   a   column   with   channels,   it   is  necessary  to 
make  a  plan  just  above  the  base,  that  is  to  say,  at  its  greatest 
diameter,  and  another  at  its  smallest  diameter  or  at  the  necking  of 
the  column.     (Plate  III.)    Having  divided  the  semi-circumference 
into  twenty  different  parts,  and  having    determined    the    radius 
through  each  point  of  division,  draw  a  chord  of  the  arc  comprising 
two  of  these    divisions;  and    with    an    opening   of    the    compass 
equal  to  one-half  of  this  chord,  and  from  the  point  where  it  inter- 
sects the  radius  which  divides  it  into  two  parts,  draw  a  semi- 
circle outside  of  the  circumference  of  the  column.     The  summit  of 
this  semi-circle  will  be  the  center  of  the  arc  of  the  circle  that  forms 
the  channel.    By  taking  the  corresponding  point  on  each  alternate 
radius  all  the  channels  may  be  drawn  with  the  same  opening  of 
the  compass.     As  a  result  of  this  method,  the  arc  of  the  Doric 
channel  is  exactly  a  quarter  circle. 

52.  The  head  or  upper    part   of    each   channel   is   a   semi- 
circle, while  the  foot  rests  on  a  plane  inclined  at  forty-five  degrees.. 
In    drawing    a    channeled    column    there    is    but    one    channel 
seen  in  direct  front  elevation,  the  others  follow  the  curvature  of 
the  shaft,  arid  are  drawn  according  to  their  positions  on  the  plan. 
They  form  at  the  upper  and  lower  extremities  different  curves 
which   can   be   obtained   only   by   projecting  the   proper   points. 


28 


COLVMN 


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3.5"              4f>              -4.S               So 

PLATE  III. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  III.)       f 


THE    ROMAN   ORDERS  17 


Thus,  to  obtain  the  curves  formed  by  the  heads  of  the  channels 
draw  (in  elevation)  the  semi-circle  forming  the  head  of  the  central 
channel,  and  divide  the  plan  of  each  one  into  eight  equal  parts. 
Now  project  upward  the  points  of  division  on  the  plan  of  this  cen- 
tral channel  by  vertical  lines  drawn  to  intersect  the  semi-circle  in 
elevation.  From  these  points  of  intersection,  draw  horizontals 
which  will  pass  through  all  the  other  channels.  Then  draw  verticals 
from  the  plan  of  each  channel,  as  has  already  been  done  with  the 
central  one, .  and  at  the  intersection  of  these  verticals  with  the 
respective  horizontal  lines,  points  of  projection  may  be  marked 
by  means  of  which  one  may  describe  the  various  curves. 

For  the  foot  of  the  channels  the  section  must  be  used  to  estab- 
lish the  points  of  projection  by  dividing  the  inclined  plane  into 
three  equal  parts,  and  from  each  of  these  points  of  division,  hori- 
zontals passing  through  all  the  channels  may  be  drawn;  then, 
dividing  the  depth  of  the  channel  on  the  plan  into  three  equal  parts, 
one  may  draw  from  the  center  of  the  column,  two  circles  passing 
through  all  the  channels.  At  the  points  where  these  circles  inter- 
sect the  outlines  of  the  several  channels,  points  are  found  in  plan 
which  may  be  projected  to  the  horizontals  of  the  elevation. 
Through  these  points  may  be  drawn  the  several  curves  of  the 
channel  footings. 

53.  This  plate  shows  also  the  details  of  the  capitals  and  bases 
of  the  two  Doric  Orders.  The  left  half  shows  the  Denticular  and  the 
right  half  the  Mntular  Order.  The  capitals  have  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  Tuscan  capital,  but  they  have  several 
differences  of  detail.  For  example,  the  abacus  is  enriched  by  a 
small  cyma-reversa  with  a  listel  or  fillet;  while  the  necking  is 
separated  from  the  quarter-round  by  three  "annulets"  in  the 
denticular,  and  by  an  astragal  in  the  mutular  -order. 

The  height  of  the  Doric  capital  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Tuscan  Order,  twenty-six,  divided  thus:  the  necking  eight,  the 
annulets  or  astragal  three,  the  quarter-round  five,-the  abacus  six, 
the  cyma-reversa  two,  and  the  listel  two;  the  total  projection  of 
these  members  is  ten,  of  which  two  is  the  projection  of  the  cyma- 
reversa,  .5  is  the  projection  of  the  abacus  beyond  the  quarter-round, 
five  for  the  quarter-round  in  the  denticular  order,  and  2.5  for  the 
three  annulets. 


18  THE    ROMAN    ORDERS 


The  quarter-round  in  the  mutular  order  is  of  the  same  height 
as  in  the  denticular  but  it  has  a  projection  of  six,  and  is  drawn 
with  a  radius  of  six,  and  the  conge  of  the  astragal  has  a  projection 
of  one  and  five-tenths.  The  shaft  of  the  column  terminates  below 
the  necking  of  the  capital  by  an  astragal  of  three  parts,  of  which 
one  is  for  the  annulet,  and  two  for  the  bead  or  ring;  the  cong6 
has  a  projection  of  one. 

Sometimes,  in  order  to  give  increased  richness  to  the  capital, 
certain  mouldings  are  carved.  The  cyma-re versa  of  the  abacus  is 
adorned  with  the  leaf  and  tongue  ornament,  the  quarter-round  with 
eggs  and  darts,  and  the  "baguette"  or  bead  with  beads  and  reels. 

54.  The  Doric  base  is  twenty-four  parts  in  height,  divided 
among  the  plinth  of  twelve,  the  torus  of  nine,  and  a  bead  or  ring 
of  three;  the  fillet  below  the  conge  of  the  column  is  two  in  height. 
The  projection  of  the  base  is  eight,  comprising  the  cong6  of  the 
column,  which  is  two,  the  bead  1.5,  and  the  torus  4.5. 

55.  The  Doric  entablatures  are  shown  in  Plates  IV  and  V. 
The  architraves  have  a  characteristic  ornament  which  consists  of 
a  row  of  small  truncated  cones  (or  pyramids)  called  "guttae," 
attached  below  the  listel  of  the  architrave  to  a  small  band  called  the 
reglet  or  taenia.     Their  position  corresponds  to   the   channeled 
parts  of  the  frieze  above,  which  are  called  the  triglyphs.     Notice 
that  the  denticular  architrave  is  composed  of  a  single  band  crowned 
by  a  listel,  while  the  mutular  has  two  bands,  of  which  the  upper 
projects    beyond   the    one    that    rests    upon  the   capital.     These 
bands  are  designated  by  the  name  fascia  or  "facure." 

Both  styles  of  Doric  architraves  are  twenty-seven  parts  in 
height,  of  which  four  are  given  to  the  listel. 

The  lower  band  of  the  mutular  Doric  architrave  is  nine  parts 
in  height;  the  height  of  the  guttae  is  three,  of  the  reglet  or  "taenia" 
one.  The  denticular  style  has  but  one  projection,  that  of  the  listel, 
which  is  three.  The  mutular  has  a  projection  of  four,  because  of 
the  added  projection  of  the  second  fascia  which  is  one.  The  guttae 
are  spaced  four  parts  from  center  to  center;  their  lower  width  is 
three  and  the  upper  width  two.  The  face  of  the  taenia  is  parallel 
to  the  slope  of  the  guttae.  The  projection  of  the  guttae  from  the 
face  of  the  architrave  is  2.5  on  the  bottom,  and  two  at  the  top. 

56.  The  frieze  of  the  Doric  Order  is  thirty-six  parts  in  height 


32 


DORIC  "BENT1CVLAR> 


'DETAILS 


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—  -  — 

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•  .JE.CTIOJS  •  THROUGH  •  TRIGLYPH  - 


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PLATE  IV. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  IV.) 


33 


THE  ROMAN  ORDERS 


and  is  distinguished  by  its  triglyphs,  which  are  apparently  the 
extremities  of  beams,  forming  on  the  frieze  a  slight  projection  of 
two  parts,  and  spaced  at  regular  intervals.  The  name  comes 
from  the  triangular  channels  with  which  they  are  ornamented. 
The  detail  of  this  ornament  as  well  as  of  the  dependant  guttae  is 
clearly  shown  in  Fig.  7. 

57.  The  cornice  of  the  denticular  Doric  Order  is  thirty-seven 
parts  in  height  and  its  projection  is  forty.  It  is  composed  first,  of 
a  band  four  parts  in  height  and  one  in  projection,  forming  a  slight 


/\ 


\ 


/\ 


Fig.  7. 

projection  of  .5  over  each  triglyph ;  second,  a  cyma-reversa  of  three 
in  height  and  2.5  in  projection,  placed  with  a  projection  of  five- 
tenths  over  the  head  of  the  triglyph ;  third,  a  baud  six  in  height 
and  five- tenths  in  projection  over  the  cyma-reversa;  against  this 
band  are  placed  small  blocks,  five  parts  in  height  and  four  in  width, 
with  a  space  of  two  between  them,  which  are  called  dentils; 
fourth,  a  corona  eleven  parts  in  height  comprising  two  fillets,  of  one 
part  each  which  are  seen  in  profile  on  the  section  AA  and  which, 
with  the  drip,  are  intended  to  carry  off  the  rain  water;  fifth,  a  cyrna- 


85 


THE    ROMAN    ORDERS 


reversa  of  1«8  surmounted  by  a  fillet  of  1.2  and  the  whole  project- 
ing 2.2;  sixth,  a  cavetto  of  six,  and  six  in  projection;  seventh,  a 
listel  of  four  crowning  the  cavetto. 

58.  The  two  sections  show  that  the  dentils  are  surmounted 
under  the  corona  by  a  cavetto  of  two  in  height,  having  a  projection 
of  two  in  which  is  included  the  offsetting  projection  of  .5.  This 
cavetto  causes  the  soffit  or  lower  face  of  the  corona  to  be 
inclined  two  parts.  This  soffit  is  divided  into  panels  of  various 
forms  corresponding  to  the  divisions  of  the  frieze,  as  will  be 
seen  in  Fig.  9.  Those  panels  which  correspond  to  the  triglyphs 
are  ornamented  by  round  guttae,  the  position  of  which  is  de- 
termined by  the  edges  of  the  channels.  The  guttae  are  three 
parts  in  diameter  at  the  lower  face  and  two  at  their  summit; 
they  are  one  in  height  and  are  placed  in  three  rows  spand 
four  from  center  to  center.  The  other  panels  are  divided  into 

lozenges  and  triangles  and  are 
sometimes  ornamented  with  ro- 
settes or  other  devices. 

59.  The  frieze  of  the  mutu- 
lar  order  is  distinguished  only 
by  a  slight  difference  in  the 
channels  of  the  triglyph.  The 
channels  on  the  edges  are  eased 
off  into  a  curve  at  the  top, 
while  the  others  form  re-enter- 
ing angles. 

The  cornice  is  noticeable  for  the  projecting  blocks  which 
depend  from  the  corona  and  which  are  called  nmtules  (Fig.  8). 
This  cornice  (Plate  V)  has  the  same  height  as  the  preceding  one 
(Plate  IV),  but  it  differs  in  its  projection,  which  is  forty-two.  The 
height  is  divided  in  the  following  manner:  the  band  above  the 
triglyph  four,  the  fillet  1.5,  the  quarter  round  three  and  five-tenths, 
mutules  six  and  five-tenths,  cyma-reversa  one  and  five-tenths,  the 
corona  eight,  cyma-reversa  one  and  eight-tenths,  fillet  one  and  two- 
tenths,  cyma-recta  six,  and  the  listel  three.  The  projection  is 
divided  as  follows:  the  thickness  of  the  triglyph  two,  band  and 
listel  one,  quarter-round  three  and  five-tenths,  the  fascia  tive- 
ti-nllis,  mutules  twenty-four  and  live-tenths,  corona  two  and 


EQMAN'BDRIC 


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DETAILS  OF 
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PLATE  V. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  V.) 


21 


five-tenths,    fillet    projection    with    cyma   reversa    two,   and  the 
cy ma-recta  six. 

The  mutules  have  a  face  five  and  five-tenths  in  height  and 
form  a  profile  composed  of  a  square  of  one,  a  drip  of  one  and  five- 
tenths,  and  a  reglet  of  two.  The  lower  face  of  the  mutules  in 
Plate  V  is  decorated  with  five  rows  of  guttae,  six  in  a  row.  As 
the  mutules  correspond  in  their  position  and  in  their  width  to  the 
triglyphs,  so  the  divisions  of  the  guttae  correspond  with  the  edges 
of  the  channels  of  the  triglyphs. 

60.  In  the  Doric  Order  the  axes  of  columns  arid  pilasters 
always  correspond  to  the  axes  of  the  triglyphs  above  them.     The 
upper  semi-diameter  of  the  column  being  twenty-two,  the  axis  of 
the   first  triglyph  is  placed  at  twenty-two  from  the  angle.    The 
triglyphs  are  twenty-four  in  width,  and  the  spaces  which  separate 
them  are  thirty-six.     These  spaces  are  exactly  square,  having  a 
width  equal  to  the  height  of  the  frieze,  and  are  called  "metopes." 
The  mutules  are  of  the  same  width  as  the  triglyphs,  twenty-four, 
and  are  placed  on  the   same  axes.     Sometimes  the  metopes  are 
decorated  with  objects  of  sculpture  whose  character  is  suggested 
by  the  character  of  the  edifice.     (Plates  VIII  and  IX.) 

61.  The  under  part  of  the  corona,  or  "soffit"   of    the   Doric 
cornice  is  divided  like  the  frieze,  its  divisions  corresponding  to  the 
triglyphs  and  the  metopes,  as  we  have  already  seen.     The  arrange- 
ment   of    the   soffit  at  the   angle  must  be  carefully  observed: — 
in  the  denticular  cornice,  Fig.  9,  there  is  included  in  the  corner  a 
division  which  corresponds  to  the  width   of  the  metope:  first,  a 
division  of  five ;  second,  a  division  of  13 ;  third,  another  division  of 
five;  and  finally — at  the  angle — a  square  of  twelve  and  a  fillet  of 
one.     These  parts  are  decorated  with  panels  where  sometimes  are 
placed  rosettes,  winged  thunder  bolts,  or  other  ornaments  in  accor- 
dance with  the  character  of  the  edifice.    In  the  soffit  of  the  mutular 
cornice  (Plate  IX)  there  is  at  the  angle  a  square  of  twenty-three 
and  five-tenths,  decorated  with  a  panel  which  may  be  filled  with 
sculpture,  such  as  the  winged  thunder-bolt.    The  space  between 
this  panel  and  the  mutule  is  ornamented  with  lozenge  shaped 
panel,  in  which  is  a  rosette. 


39 


22 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


62.  The  cymatium  or  cap  of  the  pedestal  (Plate  VI)  is  four- 
teen parts  high,  of  which  the  divisions  are:  a  fillet  of  one,  quarter- 
round  of  three,  corona  of  seven,  and  listel  of  three.  Its  projection 
is  nine,  of  which  four  is  the  projection  of  the  cong6  and  quarter- 
round,  three  and  five-tenths  of  the  corona,  and  one  and  five-tenths 
of  the  listel. 

The  base  of  the  pedestal  is  forty-five  in  height,  divided  among 
a  first  plinth  twenty-five,  second  plinth  ten,  listel  three,  cyma- 
reversa  five,  and  fillet  two.  The  projection  of  the  base  is  eight,  of 
which  one  is  for  the  first  plinth,  one  for  the  second  plinth,  four  for 
the  cyma-re versa,  and  two  for  the  conge1.  The  die  of  the  pedestal 
is  eighty-one  parts  high  and  its  sides  are  in  plane  with  the  faces 
of  the  plinth  of  the  column  base. 


AijinnnnEJA. 

Vti&^^lk,*,******* 


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poo 


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Fig.  9. 


63.  The  impost  is  twenty-five  in  height;  it  is  composed  of  an 
astragal  of  three,  a  necking  of  seven,  a  fillet  of  one,  a  quarter- 
round  of  three,  a  corona  of  eight,  and  a  listel  of  three. 

The  projection  of  the  impost  is  eight;  for  the  quarter-round 
and  fillet  four,  for  the  corona  two  and  five-tenths,  and  for  the  listel 
one  arid  five-tenths.  The  astragal  projects  two.  The  archivolt  is 
thirty  in  height;  it  is  composed  of  a  first  band  nine,  second  band 


401 


.a, 


•AfcCHIVOLT 


A;  Pier 
E?    Import 

*  C  Ardttvolt 

\j    ^_ 

D    E>cuje. 
E   Pedejta.1 


oF  One  En 


PLATE  VI. 

(A  reproduction  ^t  sroall  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  VI.) 


PLATE  VII. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  VII.) 


-*ft~J 

It        — \ la.       — f-  )0 


'  COLUMN^ 


eleven  and  five-tenths,  fillet 
one  and  five-tenths,  quar- 
ter-round four,  and  listel 
four. 

The  projection  of  the 
arch  i  volt  is  six;  second  band 
one,  fillet  one,  quarter  round 
three  and  five-tenths,  and 
listel  five-tenths. 

64.  The  width  of  the 
Doric  pilaster  in  proportion 
to  the  column  is  shown  in 
Fig.  10.  The  lower  diameter 
of  the  Doric  column  being 
fifty  and  its  upper  diameter 
forty-four,  the  difference  is 
six,  which  is  divided  into 
three  equal  parts,  of  which 
one  is  taken  for  the  differ- 
ence in  width  between  the 
neck  and  base  of  the  pilaster, 
forty-eight  being  the  width 
at  the  base  and  forty-six  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cap. 

The  difference  of  pro- 
jection of  the  bases  is  made 
up  in  the  cong6  which  pro- 
jects two  for  the  column  and 
three  for  the  pilaster. 

The  difference  in  the  pro- 
jection of  the  caps  is  made 
up  in  the  three  annulets 
and  the  quarter-round  of 
the  denticular  capital  and 
in  the  astragal  and  quarter 
round  of  the  mutular  capi- 
tal. 


Fig.  10. 


45 


24 


THE   IONIC   ORDER. 

65.  The  Ionic  Order  is  distinguished  principally  by  the  form 
of  its  capital,  of  which  the  spiral  scrolls,  called  volutes  (Plate  X) 
are  the  most  important  and  determining  characteristic. 

66.  The  abacus  of  the  Ionic  capital  is  square ;  it  projects  six 
parts  from  the  lower  face  of  the  architrave  or  from  the  upper 
diameter  of  the  shaft  of  the"  Column,  is  four  parts  in  height  and  is 
composed  of  a  fillet  of  two  parts  arid  a  cyma-reversa  of  two.    The 
fillet  also  has  a  projection  of  two.     The  upper  face  of  the  abacus 

forms  a  square  of 
fifty-one  on  each  side, 
and  the  lower  face  a 
square  of  forty-seven ; 
the  volutes  grow  from 
beneath  the  abacus 
on  opposite  sides;  the 
catheti,  which  are  the 
vertical  axes  or  center 
lines  of  the  volutes, 
are  placed  a  distance 
of  twenty-one  from 
the  axis  of  the  col- 
umn, or  project  one 
and  five-tenths  b  e  - 
yond  its  upper  diame- 
ter. The  height  of 
the  volute  being 
Fig.  11.  twenty,  the  three  fol- 

lowing dimensions  may  be  laid  out  on  the  catheti  below  the  aba- 
cus; ten  for  the  volute  above  the  eye,  two  and  five-tenths  for  the 
diameter  of  the  eye,  and  seven  and  five-tenths  for  the  lower  part  of 
the  volute.  The  volute  may  then  be  drawn. 

67.  The  spiral  or  volute  is  composed  of  twelve  quarter  circles 
drawn  from  twelve  different  centres,  which  may  be  located  in  the 
following  manner.     Having  established,  on  a  vertical  line  called 
the  "cathetus,"  the  height  of  the  volute,  twenty  parts,  it  is  divided 
into  eight  equal  portions.     The  divisions  are  marked  1,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
6,  1  and  8,  commencing  at   the  lower  edge.     Mark   the  middle 


46 


RDMAN«BDRIG«-PALIADIO 


ooo 
ooo 
ooo 

DOO 

ooo 
oo 


PLATE  VIII. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  VIII.) 


47 


THE    ROMAN   OEDERS  25 

of  the  space  included  between  the  points  3  and  4,  and  draw 
through  this  central  point  a  horizontal  line.  Taking  this  same 
point  for  the  center,  draw  with  a  radius  of  one-half  part,  a  circle 
which  will  be  the  eye  of  the  volute.  This  eye  is  shown  enlarged 
in  Fig.  11.  Divide  into  two  equal  parts  the  two  radii  of  the  eye 
which  coincide  with  the  cathetus,  C-D  giving  the  points  1  and 
4,  and  here  construct  a  square  of  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  mass  of  the  volute  is  to  be  drawn,  in  this  case  on  the 
left  of  the  cathetus.  The  side  of  this  square  which  coincides  with 
the  cathetus  being  divided  into  six  equal  parts,  the  other  two 
squares  — five,  six,  seven,  eight,  and  nine,  ten,  eleven,  twelve — may 
be  drawn.  In  this  manner  are  obtained  twelve  center  points  at 
the  corners  of  the  squares,  numbered  from  1  to  12  from  which  are 
drawn  the  twelve  quarter  circles  that  constitute  the  exterior  spiral. 
Horizontal  and  vertical  lines  from  these  twelve  centres  determine 
the  limits  of  the  twelve  quarter  circles. 

68.  In  order  to  trace  the  second  spiral  which  forms  the  inner 
edge  of  the  fillet  of  the  volute,  divide  into  three  parts  on  the  cath- 
etus (Plate  X)  the  space  included  between  the  first  and  the  second 
revolution,  that  is  to  say,  the  distance  between  the  points  six  and 
eight.     One-third  of  this  distance  6-8  will  be  the  width  of  the  fil- 
let.    To  find  the  twelve  centers  for  the  second  spiral,  draw  three 
new  squares  of  which  the  height  and  position  are  determined  by 
dividing  into  thirds  the  space  between  the  squares  of  the  first 
spiral  so  that  the  new  square  1 ' ,  2 '  r  3 ' ,  4 ' ,  (Fig.  11)  shall  be  within 
the  square  1,  2,  3,  4,  by  just  ^  the  distance  from  1  to  5  and  from 
4  to  8.     The  new  squares  5',  6',  7',  8',  and  9',  10',  11',  12',  will 
have  corresponding  relations  to  squares  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  9,  10,  11,  12, 
respectively.     From    the    points  1'   to  12'    inclusive,  the  second 
spiral  may  be  drawn  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first. 

69.  For  the  outer  fillet,  which  appears  below  the  abacus  and 
beyond  the  cathetus,  (Plate  X)  find  four  center  points  by  construct- 
ing a  new  square  larger  than  the  square  1,  2,  3,  4,  (Fig.  11).     This 
is  determined  by  taking  on  the  cathetus  C-D,  half  of  the  distance 
from  the  point  1  to  the  point  1',  and  measuring  this  distance  out- 
side of  the  point  1  to  the  point  1",  from  which  2",  3",  4",  etc., 
can  be  readily  drawn. 

70.  The  space  included  between  the  lower  part  of  the  abacus 


49 


THE  ROMAN  ORDERS 


and  the  first  complete  revolution  of  the  volute  forms  a  flat  band 
which  ties  together  the  two  volute  faces  of  the  capital,  and  this  band 
is  set  back  two  and  five-tenths  from  the  projection  of  the  abacus. 
(See  section  through  side  of  capital.)  The  fillet  disappears  in  this 
face  by  a  quarter  of  a  circle  .drawn  from  the  point  six  on  the  cath- 
etus.  The  space  between  the  lower  line  of  this  face  and  the  hori- 
zontal line  passing  through  the  center  of  the  volute  eye  is  taken 
up  by  a  quarter-round  drawn  with  a  radius  of  six  and  projecting 
four  and  five-tenths  from  the  face  of  the  volutes  or  eight  from  the 
outside  of  the  shaft,  as  may  be  seen  at  B  in  the  section  on  the 
right  of  the  drawing  of  the  "Side  of  the  Capital."  This  moulding 
follows  the  circular  plan  of  the  shaft  and  is  ordinarily  decorated 
with  eggs  and  darts.  Below  this  quarter-round  is  found  an  astra- 
gal which  unites  the  capital  with  the  shaft;  this  astragal  is  three 
and  five-tenths  parts  in  height,  of  which  two  and  five-tenths  are 
for  the  bead  and  one  for  the  fillet,  the  projection  is  two  and  five- 
tenths  of  which  one  and  five-tenths  is  for  the  bead,  and  one  for  the 
cong6. 

71.  The  side  face  of  the  capital,  called  the  "roll,"  unites  the 
volutes  of  the  two  faces.  It  is  forty-six  parts  in  width  and  is 
divided  in  the  center  by  a  sunken  band  of  six  (or  seven)  parts  in 
width  which  is  ornamented  with  two  bead  mouldings  of  two  parts 
each  spaced  one  part  apart.  The  height  of  this  band  below  the 
abacus  is  fourteen,  as  shown  in  the  section;  the  space  included 
between  it  and  the  return  or  inner  edge  of  the  face  of  the  volute  is 
sixteen  or  sixteen  and  five-tenths.  This  part  is  bell-shaped,  and 
its  outline  is  obtained  on  the  side  of  the  capital  as  follows: 
Having  prolonged  the  horizontal  line  marking  the  lowest  point 
of  the  volutes,  find  on  it  two  points,  the  one,  two  and  five- 
tenths  from  the  band  at  the  center,  the  other  five  and  five-tenths 
from  the  inner  edge  of  the  volute,  and  here  erect  two  perpendicu- 
lars; on  the  first  of  which  mark  heights  of  four  and  five-tenths, 
and  of  eight  and  five-tenths,  and  on  the  second  three  and  five- 
tenths,  and  nine  and  five-tenths.  Four  points  «,  &,  c  and  d  will 
be  obtained  by  this  means  through  which  the  curves  may  be 
readily  drawn. 

The  section  of  the  roll  may  be  drawn  thus:  Draw  the  profile 
of  the  abacus  and  of  the  astragal.  Then  draw  the  exterior  contour 


50 


II I 


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ULMJULJLl 


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J 


M/IVLAR; 
•ROSHAN-BDRIG 
AODRDINQ 


PLATE  IX. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  IX.) 


51 


X,' 


•DETAILS  -  OF-IONIOCAPITAL 


It    II 
'I     11 


SECTION  THROVGH 
ROLL  ON  LINE  XX 


FACE-OF-CAPITAL- 

4-t-r+,39 = HiU-5^—  6   — +  3.5-4-    in 

i-rrr— / X  ^r  T  -i  ~ir  ~     ~  ~i: l-±=^X 


*  PLAN-OF-CAPriAL- 


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5.5 

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1     '                 1 

3.5-^-3  -4  16-5—  «— 
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K3-5 


-SIDE*OF-CAPITAI^  ^H,rT 

Measure    of  One  Half  ET». 

,gr_r_r_r_.5|    |    |    [l|0|    <    |    |l|5|    <    [    |g|0|    |    i    <2|S[    |    |     3|0[    |    |    |3|5'|    <    |    4^    t    f    |-4[S|    <   ^    ^ 


PLATE  X. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  X.) 


53 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS  27 

of  the  volute  as  far  as  its  intersection  with  the  line  of  the  shaft,  by 
establishing  the  cathetus  and  the  first  three  points  of  the  squares 
1,  2,  3,  and  1",  2",  3"  in  the  eye.  Draw  a  horizontal  line  ef  mark- 
ing the  height  of  the  center  of  the  roll,  fourteen  parts  below  the 
abacus,  and  another  horizontal  three  parts  higher  up.  On  the 
latter  horizontal  fix  a  point  h  six  and  five-tenths  from  the  edge  of 
the  volute;  from  this  point,  with  a  radius  of  three,  a  semi-circum- 
ference may  be  drawn  whose  intersection  with  the  horizontal  k 
gives  the  center  of  the  second  arc  of  the  section,  which  may  be 
drawn  with  a  radius  of  six.  Then  continue  the  lower  line  of  the 
abacus  and  mark  a  point  o  three  and  five-tenths  beyond  its  pro- 
jection; this  is  the  center  of  a  third  arc  of  the  circle  which  may  be 
drawn  with  a  radius  of  seven. 

72.  The  principal  figure  of  this  plate  (X)  is  the  plan  of  the 
capital,  which  shows  the  horizontal  form  and  the  disposition  of  the 
rolls,  as  well  as  the  combination  of  the  circular  mouldings  with  the 
square  mass  of  the  capital. 

73.  The  Ionic  capital  is  generally  enriched  with  carved  orna- 
ments, the  quarter-round  is  carved  with  eggs  and  darts,  the  bead  of 
the  astragal  is  carved  with  bead  and  reel  ornaments  and  the  roll  is 
carved  with  leaves,  more  or  less  detailed,  while  a  rosette  is  fre- 
quently carved  in  the  circle  forming  the  eye  of  the  volute. 

74.  The  channels  of  the  Ionic  column  differ  from  those  of  the 
Doric  in  the  fillets  which  separate  them;  they  are  shown  in  this 
plate  to  be  twenty  in  number,  and  the  width  of  the  fillet  is  equal 
to  one-third  of  the  width  of  the  channel,  so  that,  after  having 
divided  the  circumference  of  the  shaft  into  twenty  equal  parts, 
each  of  these  is  divided  into  eight,  two  of  these  eight  parts  being 
given  to  the  fillet  and  six  to  the  channel. 

The  plan  of  each  channel  is  drawn  from  a  center  placed 
at  a  distance  of  one  part  outside  of  the  circumference  of  the  shaft, 
as  is  shown  in  the  plate.  (Plate  X.) 

75.  The  number  of  flutings  of  the  Ionic  shaft  is  frequently 
twenty-four  instead  of   twenty,  as  here  shown.     In  the  attempt 
to  differentiate  between  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  capitals  it  is 
often  desirable  to  allot  a  smaller  number  of  flutings  to  the  Ionic 
shaft.     When  this  order  is  used  at  a  small  scale,  it  is  very  proper 
that  the  channels  should  be  few  in  number,  so  as  not  to  complicate 


55 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


the  carving.  For  use  in  wood,  however,  twenty-four  channels,  with 
their  centers  placed  on  the  line  of  the  column  circumference,  are 
preferable,  as  they  are  sharper,  more  effective  and  better  accord 
with  the  accepted  number  of  seven  flutings  for  the  pilaster  shaft. 

The  flutings  as  shown  in  plan  on  Plate  X  are  very  shallow  and 
do  not  "tell"  as  much  as  should  be  expected  of  this  method  of 
ornamenting  the  column.  It  is  therefore  suggested  that  in  actual 
practice  the  method  and  number  of  flutings  shown  on  the  plan  of 
the  Corinthian  shaft,  Plate  XIX,  be  also  employed  on  the  Ionic. 

76.  The  cornice  of  the  Ionic  order  (Plate  XI)  is  less  compli- 
cated than  that  of  the  Doric,  having,  with  the  exception  of  the 
dentils,  none  but  horizontal  divisions.  The  cornice  is  forty  parts 
in  height  and  its  projection  is  equal  to  its  height. 

Certain  of  the  mouldings  are  carved  with  the  leaf  and  tongue,  the 
egg  and  dart,  and  the  bead  and  reel,  the  perpendicular  divisions  of 
which  correspond  to  the  axes  of  the  dentils,  which  in  turn  correspond 
to  the  axes  of  the  columns.  The  frieze  is  thirty  parts  in  height  and 
imdecorated;  the  architrave  is  the  same  height  as  the  frieze,  and 
is  composed  of  three  bands  or  fascias  and  a  crowning  moulding. 
The  band  which  rests  on  the  capital  is  six  in  height  and  its  face  is 
plumb  with  the  upper  diameter  of  the  column  and  with  the  frieze ; 
the  second  band  is  seven  parts  in  height  and  projects  one  part 
beyond  the  lower;  between  the  second  and  third  bands  occurs  a 
cyma-reversa  two  parts  high;  this  third  band  has  a  projection  of 
one  and  five-tenths  beyond  the  second.  The  assemblage  of  mould- 
ings crowning  the  architrave  is  composed  of  a  bead  moulding  of 
one  and  five-tenths  parts,  and  a  cyma-reversa  of  three,  crowned  by 
a  listel  of  two  and  five-tenths.  The  projection  of  these  mouldings 
beyond  the  third  band  is  three  and  five-tenths,  so  that  the  extreme 
projection  of  the  architrave  is  six. 

77,.  The  base  of  the  Ionic  order  (Plate  XII)  is  twenty-three 
and  five-tenths  parts  in  height;  it  is  composed  of  a  plinth  of  eight, 
a  first  torus  of  six,"  a  fillet  of  OIK;  and  five-tenths,  a  scotia  of  three, 
a  second  fillet  of  one,  and  a  second  torus  of  four.  The  projection 
of  the  base,  including  the  conge  of  the  shaft,  is  eight,  of  which  two 
is  the  projection  of  the  cong6.  This  is  shown  on  the  enlarged 
section  of  the  pedestal  and  column  base  at  the  left. 


IONIC  *  ORDER* 


PLATE  XT. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XI.) 


•IONIC  -DETAILS- 

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PLATE  Xn. 


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PLATE  XII. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XII.) 


THE  ROMAN  ORDERS 


29 


78.  The  cymatium  or  cap  of  the  pedestal  is  fourteen  in  height, 
divided  as  follows:  a  fillet,  one  and  five-tenths,  cyma-recta,  two 
arid  five-tenths,  surmounted  by  a  small  fillet  of  five-tenths,  a  corona 
of  five  and  five-tenths,  a  cyma-reversa  of  two,  and  a  listel  of  two. 
The  projection  of  the  cap  from  the  plinth  of  the  column  base  and 
the  die  of  the  pedestal  is  nine,  of  which  two  parts -are  for  the  cyma- 
reversa  and  listel,  and  three  and  five-tenths  for  the  corona  in 
which  is  cut  a  small  drip.  The  base  of  the  pedestal  is  forty-five  in 


IONIC  -  COLVJVLN 


_-±_ 


Fig.  12. 

height  divided  thus:  first  plinth,  twenty-five;  second  plinth,  ten: 
torus,  three  and  five-tenths;  fillet,  one;  cyma-reversa,  four;  upper 
fillet,  one  and  five-tenths.  The  projection  of  the  base  is  eight,  of 
which  one  is  for  the  conge,  four  for  the  cyma-reversa,  two  for  the 
torus,  and  one  for  the  first  plinth. 

79.     The  impost  is  twenty-three  parts  high  and  is  sub-divided 
as  follows:    astragal  three;  frieze  six  and  five-tenths;  fillet  one; 


61 


30 


THE   EOMAN   ORDERS 


quarter  round,  two  and  five-tenths;  corona,  six;  cyma- re  versa,  two; 
listel,  two.  The  projection  of  the  impost  is  eight;  two  for  the 
cyma  and  listel,  three  for  the,  corona,  and  three  for  the  quarter- 
round  and  fillet.  The  archivolt  is  twenty-five  in  width  composed  of 
a  first  band  of  seven,  a  cyma  of  two,  a  second  band  of  nine,  a  bead  of 
one  and  five-tenths,  a  cyma  of  three,  and  a  listel  of  two  and  five- 
tenths.  The  projection  of  the  archivolt  is  five,  of  which  one  and 
five-tenths  is  for  the  projection  of  the  second  band  beyond  the  first, 
one  for  the  bead,  and  two  and  five-tenths  for  the  cyma  and  its  fillet. 


IONIOKEY* 
CONSOLE 


Ont;  -  Qujou't/er  *.E,n,  •>- 
1,5 


Fig.  13. 

80.  The  relation  of  Ionic  column  taper  to  pilaster  taper 
(Fig.  12)  is  as  follows:  The  lower  diameter  of  the  Ionic  column  is 
forty-five,  and  its  upper  diameter  thirty-nine,  the  difference 
is  six,  which,  divided  into  three  parts,  as  in  the  Doric  order,  gives 
for  the  lower  width  of  the  pilaster  forty-three,  and  for  the  upper 
width  forty-one.  The  projections  of  the  bases  differ  only  in  the 
cong6  of  the  shaft  which  measures  three  for  the  pilaster  and  two 
for  the  column. 

The  disposition  of  the  capital  is  the  same  for  the  pilaster  as 
for  the  column  so,  far  as  the  volutes  are  concerned,  the  catheti  being 


62 


V 


I  V 

-Q^iJ^^lAlJUJXl^JUA^aA?Ay^A\ 


PL  ATE  XI II.    ' 

(A  reproductioH  at  small  size  or  Portfolio  Plate  XIII.) 


63 


ROMAN^IONIG^PAlADO 


>*  ^^^'^wfa, 


PLATE 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XIV.) 


65 


ROMAN   ORDERS  31 


the  same  distance  (forty-two  parts)  from  each  other.  It  .may  be 
noticed  only  in  the  plan  of  the  capital  of  the  pilaster,  that  the 
outer  edge  of  the  quarter-round  forms  an  arc  of  a  circle  drawn 
with  a  radius  of  thirty-five,while  the  astragal  is  rectangular  in  plan 
like  the  face  of  the  pilaster,  and,  running  between  the  volutes,  con- 
nects them  with  one  another. 

81.  In  Fig.  13  will  be  found  a  drawing  of  the  Ionic  console. 
Sometimes  one  of  these  consoles  is  placed  at  the  crown  of  an  arch 
intersecting  the  archivolt.  The  sides  of  such  a  console  radiate 
from  the  center  of  the  arch  ;  the  stone  on  which  the  console  is 
carved  is  called  the  "key"  of  the  arch  or  the  "keystone." 

THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 

82  The  Corinthian  is  an  elaborately  formal  and  dignified 
Order,  and  all  the  details  which  enter  into  its  composition  will 
bear  analyzing  with  the  greatest  possible  care. 

83.  The  Corinthian  capital  (Plate  XVII)  is  in  form  similar 
to  a  cylindrical  vase  covered  by  an  abacus  with  hollowed  sides  and 
with  corners  cut  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  in  plan  with  the 
sides  of  the  square  containing  the  abacus.  Against  this  vase  or 
"bell"  are  placed  two  rows  of  leaves  whose  heads  are  curved. 
The  first  row,  which  is  applied  directly  above  the  astragal  of  the 
shaft,  is  composed  of  eight  leaves]  these  are  called  the  small 
leaves.  From  the  intervals  between  these  small  leaves  arise  the 
stems  of  the  second  row  of  leaves  which  are  larger.  Between 
these  large  leaves  and  just  over  the  centers  of  the  small  ones,  eight 
stems  arise,  from  which  develop  eight  other  leaves  which,  divided 
into  two  parts,  recurve  above  the  large  leaves  at  the  corners 
of  the  abacus  and  at  the  center  of  each  of  its  faces.  These 
leaves,  which  are  very  much  distorted,  are  called  caulicoli.  From 
these  caulicoli  arise  sixteen  volutes  of  which  eight  large  ones 
unroll  in  pairs,  back  to  back,  under  the  corners  of  the  abacus, 
and  eight  small  ones,  also  in  pairs,  extend  towards  the  centers 
of  the  four  sides  of  the  abacus.  Among  the  small  volutes 
next  to  the  bell  is  placed  an  ornament  which  is  called  the 
floweret,  and  above  this,  against  the  mouldings  of  the.  abacus. 
is  a  rosette. 


32  THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 

84.  The  small  leaf,  Plate  XVI,  is  placed  on  a  vertical  axis 
against  the  vase  in  such  a  manner  that  the   base  rests  on  the 
astragal  and  its  face  corresponds  to  the  face  of  the  shaft,  so  that, 
the  leaves  being  one  part  thick  at  the  bottom,  the  vase  of  the  capi- 
tal must  be  two  parts  smaller  than  the  column  at  the  neck. 

The  sweep  of  the  leaf  has  a  projection  of  six  from  the  base 
and  forms  a  delicately  curved  profile  the  shape  of  which  may 
easily  be  determined  from  the  plate.  The  squares  represent  a 
unit  of  two  parts  in  all  cases. 

The  developed  width  of  the  leaf  is  equal  to  its  height,  thirteen 
parts.  It  is  represented  in  front  elevation,  half  developed  to  its 
full  height,  and  half  in  its  recurved  position  as  it  is  placed  on  the 
capital.  The  developed  -half  shows  the  under  part  of  the  curved 
top;  it  may  be  seen  that  a  perpendicular  axis  divides  the  leaf  into 
two  perfectly  symmetrical  halves,  each  halt  being  divided  into  four- 
divisions  which  themselves  are  sub-divided — the  topmost  and  lowest 
ones  into  four  pointed  lobes,  the  two  others  into  five. 

Notice  that  in  order  to  present  the  ordinary  profile  above  the 
astragal,  the  leaf  preserves  its  entire  mass  in  the  lower  part  for 
a  small  distance  above  the  base. 

85.  The  large  leaf,  (Plate  XV)  which  grows  from  above  the 
astragal,  in  the  small  space  between  two  of  the  smaller  leaves, 
(see  Plate  XVII)  projects  nine  parts  beyond  the  upper  diameter  of 
the   shaft.     Its  details  are  in  almost  every  particular  similar  to 
those  of  the  small  leaf. 

86.  The  stems  of  the  caulicoli  (Plate  XVI)   are  channeled 
batons  or  staves  each  crowned  by  a  calix  from  which  the  distorted 
leaf  or  caiilicolus  springs  (Plates  XV  and  XVI.) 

87.  It  may  be  noticed  that  in  the  direct  elevation  (Plate  XVI) 
the  enrollments  of  the  volute  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  cork- 
screw, and  the  section  shows  the  manner  in  which  their  faces  are 
hollowed  out.     The  floweret  (Plate  XV)  is  seen  only  in  direct  ele- 
vation in  the  general  plate,  being  attached  to  the  vase  on  the  axis 
of  each  space  between  the  smaller  volutes.     It  is  shown  separately 
on  this  plate,  with  a  horizontal  section. 

88.  This  same  plate  shows  the  detail  of  a  rosette  having  six 
division's,  in  the  center  of  which   is  found  a  slug  .whose  tail  is 
turned  upward. 


68 


Developed -Half-  A.    -A.ctvi.al-Ha.lF 


PLATE  XV. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XV.) 


»       60 


OJVTALL- 

Vounx 


Developed -Half-    C       ActaaL 


PLATE  XVI. 

(A  Reproduction  at  small  si^e  of  Portfolio  Plate  XVI.) 


71 


THE    ROMAN   ORDERS  33 

89.  The  upper  part  of  the  Corinthian  capital  is  a  drum  in  the 
form  of  a  bell  whose  upper  edge  is  decorated  with  a  curved  mould- 
ing called  the  lip.  The  bell  is  forty  parts  in  height;  its  lower 
diameter  (directly  above  the  astragal  of  the  column)  is  thirty-four, 
—two  parts  less  than  the  neck  of  the  column,' — and  its  upper 
diameter  at  the  edge  of  the  lip  is  forty-four.  This  difference  of 
diameter  forms  a  section  or  outline  starting  at  the  astragal  and 
extending  in  a  delicate  curve  up  to  the  edge  of  the  lip. 

It  is  against  this  vase  or  bell  that  all  the  ornaments  that  have 
been  detailed  are  attached.  In  order  to  draw  each  one  in  its 
own  place  in  the  general  elevation — after  having  made  the  section, 
or  profile,  of  the  bell,  with  the  astragal  of  the  shaft — mark  on  a  ver- 
tical line  the  height  of  the  small  leaf,  thirteen  parts;  above  this 
the  height  of  the  large  leaf,  twelve;  then  the  distance  above  the 
large  leaves  up  to  the  volute,  six;  next  mark  the  height  of  the 
turn-over  of  the  small  and  the  large  leaves,  four;  and  the  turn- 
over of  the  caulicoli,  three  and  five-tenths.  Through  all  these  dif- 
ferent points  draw  horizontal  lines  across  the  width  of  the  bell. 
All  the  projections  are  figured  from  verticals  erected  from  the  face 
of  the  column  above  the  astragal.  The  small  leaf  projects  six,  the 
large  one  nine,  the  leaf  of  the  caulicolus  fifteen  and  five-tenths, 
and  the  volute  seventeen. 

90:  In  order  to  draw  the  elevation  of  the  Corinthian  capital 
it  is  necessary  to  consider  first  its  outline  as  a  section,  and 
to  lay  out  carefully,  in  plan,  the  arrangement  of  its  leaf  ornaments, 
as  shown  in  Plate  XVII.  By  means  of  this  section  and  plan,  the 
elevation  may  be  exactly  determined,  after  the  individual  parts, 
with  their  arrangement,  are  thoroughly  understood. 

91.  The  capital  of  the  pilaster  is  composed  of  the  same  ele- 
ments as  that  of  the  column;  but  as  the  plan  of  the  pilaster  is 
square  the  forms  are  slightly  different;  thus  the  vase,  which  is 
square  at  its  base  above  the  astragal,  has  convex  faces;  each  face 
of  the  vase  has  two  small  leaves  square  in  plan,  and  centering  on 
perpendiculars  at  a  distance  of  nine  from  the  center  line.     Larger 
leaves  are  placed  in  the  center  of  each  face  and  at  each  angle. 
The  abacus  and  other  details  are  exactly  similar  to  those  of  the 
capital  of  the  column. 

92.  The  Corinthian  architrave  (Plate  XVIII)  is  thirty  parts 


73 


34  THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 

in  height  and  divided  into  three  bands ;  the  first,  five  and  five- 
tenths;  second,  six  and  five-tenths;  and  the  third,  seven  and  five- 
tenths.  Between  the  first  and  the  second  there  is  a  bead  of  one; 
between  the  second  and  the  third,  a  cyma  of  two;  above  the  third 
face  there  is  a  bead  of  one  and  five-tenths;  cyrna-reversa,  three 
and  five"- tenth s ;  and  a  fillet,  two  and  five-tenths.  The  total  pro- 
jection of  the  architrave  from  the  frieze  is  five  and  five-tenths. 

93.  The  frieze  has    the    same    height    as    the    architrave, 
and  is   terminated  against  the   cornice  by  an   astragal  of    one 
and  five-tenths,  of  which  five-tenths  is  for  the  fillet -and  one  for 
the  bead. 

94.  The  Corinthian  cornice  has  a  total  height  of  forty  parts 
and  its  projection  is  equal  to  its  Ijeight.     It  is  divided  thus:  first, 
a  cyma  of  three;  second,  a  flat  band  of  six  and  five-tenths,  against 
which  is  placed  a  row  of  dentils  five  and  five-tenths  deep;  third,  an 
astragal  one  and  five-tenths;   fourth,  a  quarter- round  three  and 
five-tenths;  fifth,  a  flat  band  of  seven,  against  which  are  placed 
modilliqns  six  and  five-tenths  parts  deep;  sixth,  a  cyma   of   one 
and  fi¥e-tenths  which  is  mitred  around  the  modillioiis  and  which 
crowns  them;  seventh,  a  corona  of  seven;  eighth,  a  cyma  of  one  and 
five-tenths;  ninth,  a. fillet  of  one;  tenth,  a  cyma-recta  of  five,  and 
a,  fillet  .of  twoTaiid  five-tenths. 

The  total  projection  of  forty  is  divided  as  follows :  four  parts 
for  the  cyma,  four  for  the  dentils,  five  for  the  astragal,  the  quarter- 
round,  and  the  flat  band  of -the  modilllons;  eighteen  for  the^modil- 
lions  up  to  the  Ipwer  angle  of  the  cyma;  one  for  the  cyma  reversa; 
one  for  the  corona;  two  for  the  upper  cyma  and  its  listel;  and  five 
for  the  cyma-recta. 

95.  The  cornice  of  the  Corinthian  order  is  distinguished  by 
the  consoles  which  support  the  corona  and  which  are  called  modil- 
lions.     The  modillion  is  composed  of  two  volutes  or  spirals  similar 
to  the  keystone  which  we  have  already  analyzed  in  Fig.  16,  but 
while  in  the  keystone  the  large  spiral  is  .found  at  the  highest  part, 
in  the  console  it  is  at -the  back  and  attached  to  the  face  of  the 
cornice. 

The  lower  side  of  the  modillion  is  covered  by  an  ornamented 
leaf,  whose  head  curves  back  against  the  smaller  volute.  The  gen- 
eral proportions  and  tfurves  of  this  leaf  are  indicated\jn  Plate 


.  *CORINTHIAN*GAPITAL 


.,,- 


PLATE  XVn. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  ot  Portfolio  Plate  XVII.) 


75 


CORINTHIAN.  •  ORDER 


DETAILS 


PLATE  XVIII. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XVIII. ) 


77 


XVIII.  In  practice,  the  console  is  drawn  free-hand  after  laying 
out  the  general  proportions. 

The  modillions  are  nine  parts  in  width  and  are  spaced  seven- 
teen and  five-tenths  apart  or  twenty-six  and  five-tenths  from 
center  to  center;  the  dentils  are  four  parts  wide  and  are  two  apart. 
Against  the  cyma-recta  very  frequently  is  placed  a  row  of  masks  in 
the  form  of  lions'  heads  to  serve  as  water  spouts.  These  masks 
occur  over  the  center  of  the  modillions. 

The  soffit  of  the  corona  is  ornamented  between  the  modillions, 
with  panels  containing  rosettes.  (Fig.  14.) 


•SOFFIT*  OF-CORr 

"INTH1AN'OORN1C& 


Fig.  U. 

96.  The  base  of  the  Corinthian  Order  (Plate  XIX)  is  com- 
posed of  a  plinth,  two  torus  mouldings,  and  two  scotias  separated 
by  a  double  bead.     Its  total  height  is  twenty-three,  of  which  seven 
and  five-tenths  is  for  the  plinth ;  five  and  five-tenths  for  the  first 
torus;  one  for  the  fillet;  one  and  five-tenths  for  the  first  scotia; 
two  for  the  beads  and  their  annulets ;  one  and  five-tenths  for  the 
second  scotia;  five-tenths  for  its  listel;  and  three  and  five-tenths 
for  the  second  torus. 

The  total  projection  of  the  base  is  eight;  in  this  is  included 
the  cong6  of  the  column  whose  projection  is  one  and  five-tenths. 

97.  The  cap  of  the  pedestal  is  twenty  parts  in  height  divided 
among  an  astragal  of  two,  a  small  frieze  of  five  and  five-tenths, 
second  astragal  of  two,  a  cyma-recta  of  two  and  five-tenths,  corona 
of  five,  a  cyma-re versa  of  one  and  seven-tenths,  and  a  fillet  of  one 


79 


36 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


and  three-tenths.     The  total  projection  of  the  cap  from  the  die  of 
the  pedestal  is  eight. 

The  base  of  the  pedestal  is  forty  parts  in  height;  it  is  coin- 
posed  of  a  first  plinth  of  twenty-four,  a  second  plinth  of  six,  a 
torus  of  three  and  five-tenths,  a  reversed  cyuia-recta  of  three  and 
five-tenths,  with  a  fillet  of  one,  a  bead  one  and  five-tenths,  with  a 
fillet  of  five-tenths.  The  total  projection  is  seven  and  five-tenths, 
of  which  one  is  for  the  first  plinth. 


•PUA-S'ER^GOLVMN 
k 


CORINTHIAN 
A/MN^PILP 
-RELATION 


x 


FOR- 


\PLAN-~i-bA3E, 


Fig.  15. 

98.  The  impost  is  twenty  parts  in  height  and  is  composed  of 
an  astragal  of  two;  frieze,  five  and  five-tenths;  fillet,  five-tenths: 
bead,  one;  quarter-round,  two  and  five-tenths;  corona,  five;  cyuia- 
reversa,  two;  and  listel,  one  and  five-tenths. 

The  total  projection  of  the  impost  is  seven,  but  for  the  arches 
between  which  a  column  with  a  pedeslal  is  used,  there  is  a  greater 
projection  of  the  corona  of  the  impost.  In  this  case  the  impost 
projection  is  eight. 


80 


PEDESTAL*  &  *  IMPOST 


PLATE  XIX. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XIX.) 


61 


THK    ROM  AX    OKDKKS 


99.  The  a  re  hi  volt  is  composed  of  three  fascias,  a  bead  ami 
quarter-round  with  a  fillet,  and  a  ey  ma -re  versa,  with  fillet.  Its 
width  is  twenty-two  parts;  the  first  fascia  four;  bead  one;  second 
fascia  five;  fillet  five-tenths;  quarter-round  one  and  five-truths; 
third  fascia  six  and  five-tenths;  cynia  two;  and  fillet  one  and  tivr- 
tenths.  The  total  projection  is  four. 


CORINTHI  AN*  KEY-  CONS  OLE 


Fig.  1G. 

100.  The  channels  of  the  Corinthian  column  are  twenty-four 
in  number.     The  width  of  the  fillet  which  separates  them  is  one- 
third  of  the  channel  width.     The  width  of  a  pier  of  the  arcade  is 
equal  to  the  width  of  a  column  plus  two  archivolts  which  is  eighty- 
four  parts. 

101.  The  Corinthian  pilaster  and  column  relation  is  shown 
in  Fig.  15:  the  pilaster  width   at  the  base  is  thirty-nine;  at  the 


83 


38 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


-  -3 


•    4. 


T 

I 
l 

•i 

n 

4 


-*•< 

3 
•4- 


ORDER? 


Pig.  17. 


height  of  the  capital  it  is  thirty-seven. 
The  width  of  the  pilaster  differs  from 
the  diameter  of  the  column,  being  one 
part  less  at  the  base  and  one  more  at 
the  height  of  the  capital.  The  base  of 
the  pilaster  projects  eight  and  five- 
tenths  so  that  the  total  width  may  be 
equal  to  that  at  the  base  of  the  column. 
The  width  of  the  abacus  of  the  pilaster 
capital  is  equal  to  that  of  the  capital 
of  the  column. 

102.  When  the  pilaster  is  chan- 
neled, there  is  formed  at  each  angle  a 
bead  of  one  part  and  the  remaining 
width  is  divided  into  twenty-nine  equal 
spaces  which  in  turn  are  divided  into 
seven  channels   of  three  spaces,  and 
eight  fillets  of  one  space  each.    The 
summits  and  the  bases  of  the  channels 
correspond   to  the  starting   point   of 
the  conges. 

This  rule  for  fluting  of  columns 
and  pilasters  is  also  applicable  to  the 
Ionic  Order. 

103.  The  drawing  of  the  keystone 
console  of  theCoririthianarch  as  shown 
in  Fig.  16  is  a  little  different  from 
that  of  the  Ionic  Order,  but  is  drawn 
in  accordance  with  the  same  rules. 

THE  COMPOSITE  ORDER. 

104.  The  Composite  capital  (Fig. 
17)  is  a  mixture  of  elements  of  the 
Ionic  and  Corinthian   capitals.     Its 
forms  and  general  proportions  are  like 
those  of  the  Corinthian  Order.   There 
are  two  banks  of  leaves  placed  as  in 
the  Corinthian,  but  the  upper  part  is 


84 


J  I I  I I  I I  I I  I I  I I  I I  I     I  I I  I I 


l£0'^3g73^\>i^v^JJJ^ 


PEDESTAL 


PLATE  XX. 
A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XX.) 


85 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS  39 

in  the  form  of  an  Ionic  capital  whose  volutes  are  placed  on  the  angles. 

105.  The  general  proportions  of  the  Composite  entablature 
are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Corinthian,  but  their  details  are  appre- 
ciably different  in  the  cornice,  where  the  modillions  are  replaced 
by  a  sort  of  double  mutule  having  two  fascias. 

106.  We  have  HOW  arrived  at  the  close  of  the  analysis  of  all 
the  details  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  three  Orders  of 
Classical  Architecture,  and  it  will  be  advisable  to  take  up  briefly 
the  consideration  of  their  use  in  relation  to  each  other,  especially 
in  regard  to  the  principles  governing  their  intercolumniation  and 
superposition. 

INTERCOLUMNIATION. 

107.  Intercolumniation   is   the   spacing  of    columns   in   the 
clear,  especially  of  columns  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  colonnade. 
When  a  figured  dimension  refers  to  the  spacing  it  is  invariably 
one  diameter  less  than   the   distance   from  center   to  center  of 
columns. 

108.  Superposition  has  reference  to  the  use  of  the  orders  in 
two  or  more  stories,  when  certain  general  principles  always  apply, 
as  will  be  shown. 

109.  A  colonnade  is  a  row  of  columns  spaced  regularly  and 
connected  by  an  entablature.     The  space  which  separates  these 
columns  is  called  the  intercolumniation.     When  the  colonnade  is 
composed  of  two  or  more  rows  of  columns  and  the  space  which 
they  enclose  is  covered  and  serves  as  a  covered  porch  or  entrance 
to  a  building,  this  porch  is  called  a  portico,  and  it  is  often  crowned 
with  a  gable  or  pediment  above  the  columns.     Usually  one  side  of 
a  portico  is  closed  by  a  wall,  and  sometimes  three  sides  are  so 
closed;  in  such  a  case  the  columns  at  the  angles  are  replaced  by 
pilasters  to  which  the  side  walls  are  attached.     Pilasters  which  are 
employed  in  this  manner  are  called  antae,  and  a  portico  of  this 
kind  is  a  portico  "in  antis."     The  term  "antae1'  is  more  generally 
employed  in  Greek  work  and  the  term  "pilaster"  is  used  in  Roman 
architecture. 

110.  When  the  portico  is  employed  as  a  porch  in  front  of  a^T 
edifice,  the  columns  are  generally  of  an  even  number,  and  the 
spaces  of  uneven  number,  in  order  to  have  a  space  in  the  center 
opposite  the  door-way  of  the  building.     Even  when  an  entrance  is 


87 


40 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


not  placed  behind  the  center  of  a  colonnade  it  is  considered  in  bet- 
ter taste  to  place  the  columns  or  arches  so  that  a  support  does  not 
come  in  the  center  of  any  such  arrangement.  When  a  pediment 
is  placed  over  columns  this  rule  is  even  more  strictly  followed. 
Occasionally,  usage  determines  that  the  intercolumniations  of  a 
portico  shall  be  unequal  so  that  the  central  opening  may  be  wider 
than  the  others,  in  order  that  the  approach  to  the  entrance  to  the 
building  may  be  more  ample. 

111.  The  intercolumniation  of  the  Roman  Doric  order  is 
determined  more  or  less  by  the  fact  that  the  columns  are  invaria- 
bly placed  directly  under  the  triglyphs.  It  will  be  found  difficult 
to  space  two  columns  under  two  adjacent  triglyphs,  because 


Fig.  18. 

the  bases  and  caps  of  the  columns  will  overlap  each  other. 
Still,  they  may  be  so  •  placed  by  enlarging  the  spaces  between 
the  triglyphs  or  reducing  the  projection  of  the  cap  and  base,  or 
both.  It  is  not  often  that  circumstances  would  justify  such  an 
alteration  in  the  order  to  effect  a  close  spacing  of  columns. 
When  the  columns  are  set  under  alternate  triglyphs  they  are 
spaced  about  two  and  one-half  diameters  on  centers.  The  inter- 
columniation is  then  one  and  one-half  diameters,  or  as  it  is 
termed  '•monotriglyphic"  or  "pycnostyle,"  (Fig.  18).  The  width  of 
the  intercolumniations  (spaces  between  columns)  of  a  portico  should 
seldom  be  less  than  one  and  one-half  times  the  diameter  of  the 
column,  and  in  old  work  it  will  rarely  be  found  to  exceed  two  and 
one-half  diameters.  In  modern  practice  as  in  exceptional  cases  in 


r-aO^WA.W/VW/&TAWA'AWXgtfMA'AW 


\5OFF1T 


'ROMAN 
•CORI 


^OaUiO^^ 


;^sffig^arm 


AlLADIO 


PLATE  XXI. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXI.) 


89 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


ancient  work,  this  spacing  is,  however,  exceeded.  When  two  trig- 
lyphs  occur  over  the  opening  between  the  columns  the  intercolum- 
niation  is  about  two  and  three-fourths  diameters,  and  is  called 
"ditriglyph  ic/'  Too  great  an  intercolumniation  produces  a  bad  effect 
in  all  the  orders.  However,  when  the  order  is  executed  in  wood  a 
much  wider  spacing  is  often  employed. 

112.  In  the  spacing  of  columns  other  than  in  Doric  Order 
there  is  no  such  special  requirement  as  to  the  location  of  the 
column  under  any  particular  part  of  the  entablature,  although 
where  modillions  or  brackets  are  used  they  should  be  so  spaced  as 
to  come  over  the  axes  of  the  columns.  Such  modillions  or  brackets 
are,  however,  easily  varied  slightly  in  spacing  or  location,  so  that  the 


»-* — •*Z.-l>--J!r 5  I> * -3j|-t>-  -* 4-T> * 5  -T> -*f 

;RDMAN  -lOJNllOlN^RCOLYMNIAnON- 


Fig.  19. 

system  of  intercolumniation  in  any  other  than  the  Doric  Order  is 
generally  determined  only  by  the  diameter  and  height  of  the 
columns  themselves.  Columns  are  referred  to  as  "coupled"  when 
they  are  so  placed  that  the  bases  or  caps  just  avoid  touching.  This 
would  space  them  about  one-third  to  one-half  their  diameter  apart, 
which  is  the  least  spacing  that  the  outline  of  the  column  itself  will 
allow.  The  various  spacings  of  columns  are  generally  termed 
coupled,  pyciiostyle,  systyle,  eustyle,  diastyle,  and  aroeostyle 
according  as  they  are  placed  close  together  or  are  separated  by  1, 
1$,  2,  2J,  3  or  4  diameters.  (Fig.  19.)  The  spacing  of  the  coupled 


91 


42 


columns  we  have  already  explained.  The  pycnostyle  intercolunmi- 
ation  varies  from  one  and  one-quarter  to  one  and  one-half  diam- 
eters. The  systyle  iiitercolumniation  has  two  diameters  which  in 
modern  work  would  often  seem  too  little.  The  eustyle  has  two 
and  one-quarter  diameters  between  the  columns;  or,  as  is  some- 
times preferred  in  modern  practice,  two  and  one-third  diameters  as 
in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders.  This  corresponds  more  exactly 
to  the  customary  spacing  of  dentils  and  modillions. 

113.  Closer  iiitercolumniations  are  generally  used  011  monu- 
mental work  of  large  scale,  while  that  of  a  more  domestic  character 
requires  a  wider  spacing  of  columns  for  practical  utilitarian  pur- 
poses.    During  the  Renaissance,  the  custom  of  placing  columns  in 
couples  and   taking  each  couple  as   a  unit  for  working  out  the 
colonnade,  was  first  adopted  and  has  since,  especially  in  France, 
been  much  employed.     In  modern  practice  the  columns  are  placed 
less  by  rule  than   to  satisfy  the  eye  and  the  judgment  of  the 
designer.     It  must   be   remembered,   however,   that   the  axes  of 
the  columns  must  always  be  in  accord  with  certain  members  of  the 
entablature  above,  such  as  the  triglyphs,  dentils,  or  modillions,  and 
also  that,  under  a  pediment,  the  columns  themselves  should  be 
even  in  number. 

114.  A  portico  forming  the  front  facade  of  an  edifice,  when 
there  are  not  more  than  seven  intercolumniations,  may  be  crowned 
by  a  triangular  gable  or  pediment  which  forms  the  roof  of  the 
porch. 

115.  A  pediment  is  placed  above  the  cornice  of  the  entabla- 
ture and  is  formed  by  two  sloping  cornices  which  are  joined  at  the 
angles  to    the   horizontal    cornice.     The  crowning  cyma-recta  or 
cavetto  follows  the  sloping  cornice  and  is  omitted  from  the  hori- 
zontal cornice  below  the  face  of  the  pediment.     The  triangular 
face  which  is  found  between  the  three  cornides  corresponds  in 
plane  with  the  frieze  of  the  entablature  and  is  called  the  "tympa- 
num" of  the  pediment. 

The  height  of  a  pediment  is  determined  as  follows.  In  Fig.  20 
let  A  be  the  point  in  which  the  axis  of  the  pediment  intersects  the 
highest  line  of  the  horizontal  cornice.  With  this  point  as  a  center 
and  with  a  radius  equal  to  one-half  the  width  of  the  pediment,  draw 
a  semi-circle  below  the  pediment  as  shown  in  the  figure.  This 


92 


IONIC  •  ORDEI 


-ELEVATION-    SECTION- 

ArcK  WuttX.     2  in, 


^ARCHED  *  DOOR>^\Y 


PLATE  XXII. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXIL) 


93 


semi-circle  intersects  the  axis  of  the  pediment  at  the  point  B. 
With  B  as  a  center  and  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  distance  from  B 
to  C  (the  extreme  outside  point  of  the  horizontal  cornice)  draw  an 
arc  above  the  cornice.  The  point  D,  in  which  this  arc  intersects 
the  axis,  will  be  the  highest  point  or  "peak"  of  the  pediment.  Draw 
the  lines  DC  and  DE  and  the  outline  of  the  pediment  will  be 
complete. 


Fig.  20. 

In  plute  XXXIII  is  represented  a  portico  of  the  Ionic  Order 
with  three  iiitercolunmiatioiis  which  forms  the  front  of  an  edifice 
intended  for  a  hall  or  temple.  The  plan  is  a  parallelogram  of 
which  the  front  or  portico  occupies  one  of  the  smaller  sides. 

SUPERPOSITION  OF  THE  ORDERS. 

116.  The  principles  governing  superposition,  or  the  use  of 
orders  one  above  the  other,  as  we  find  them  in  many  of  the  Roman 
and  Renaissance  buildings,  is  that  the  natural  method  is  followed 
in  placing  a  lighter  and  apparently  more  delicate  order  above  one 
of  greater  strength.  For  instance,  the  Tuscan  should  never  be 
other  than  the  lowest  order,  and  the  Doric  should  be  placed  above 
this.  As  we  have  already  seen,  however,  the  Tuscan  Order  may 
better  be  omitted  and  the  Doric  Order  may  be  placed  in  the  lowest 
story  with  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  above  in  the  order  named. 


95 


SWERPOSITION- 


ARCADE- 


Fig.  21. 


96 


Colleoni  Palace,  Vicenza.  Italy;  Andrea  Palladio,  Architect. 
A  Renaissance  example  of  the  placing  of  an  Order  above  an  arcade. 


•TVSCAN'ORDER; 


-  ELEVATION 


K — TZ«,>^-.  y-  sr  -f-^ a.  E~-4o  


-PLAN 


'ARCADE- 


PLATE  XXIII. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  siza  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXIII.) 


97 


Detail  of  Courtyard,  Borgnese  Palace,  Rome;  Martlno  Longhi,  Architect. 
Showing  Renaissance  superposition  of  arches  resting  on  coupled  columns. 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS  45 

117.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  same  order  is  employed 
in  two  different  stories,  in  which  case  the  upper  example  should  be 
more  slender  and  of  less  diameter  than  that  below.     This  rule 
holds  good  for  any  superposition  of  the  orders.     Usually  the  base 
diameter  of  the  shaft  above  is  the  same  as  the  diameter  at  the 
neck  of  the  shaft  below.     In  section,  or  in  side  elevation,  it  is  the 
practice  to  make  each   order  recede  slightly  from   the   face  of 
the  one  below.     In  other  words,  the  base  or  square  plinth  beneath 
the  column  in  the   upper   story  should  be  plumb  with  the  face 
of  the  frieze  of  the   order  of  the  story  below.     This  gives  an 
appearance  of   stability  which  is  quite  appreciable  and  prevents 
the  upper  orders  from  seeming  to  overpower  and  overweigh  the 
orders  below. 

118.  If  columns  are  coupled  and  set  exactly  over  each  other, 
there  is  slight  tendency  for  the  space  between  the  columns  in  the 
upper  story  to  seem  too  wide.     This  may  be  avoided  by  taking  the 
center  line  of  the  space  between  the  lowest  couple  and  then  draw 
the  columns  in  toward  each  other  on  each  successive  story;  keep- 
ing them  in  the  same  relation  to  each  other  and  equally  spaced 
on  each  side  of  the  center  line. 

119.  Facades  of  edifices  of  two  stories  sometimes  have  an 
order  occupying  the  whole  height  of  the  upper  story,  the  lower 
story  being  treated  as  a  pedestal  for  this  order.     An  example  of 
this  combination  is  seen  in  Fig.  21.     The  lower  story  or  ground 
floor,  raised  on  three  steps,  is  composed  of  an  arcade  crowned  by 
an  entablature  to  which  may  be  applied  the  details  of  the  Tuscan 
order.     Above  this  entablature  is  a  Tuscan  or  a  Doric  order  with 
arches  whose  axes  correspond  to  those  of  the  lower  arches.     This 
order  is  raised  on  a  double  plinth  which  forms  the  base  of  the 
arcade. 

120.  The  use  of  an  order  in  the  upper  story  of  a  two-storied 
facade  offers  few  difficulties  and  generally  produces  a  good  effect; 
the  proportional  height  of  the  base  to  the  order  which  surmounts 
it  depends  entirely  on  the  height  of  the  stories.     In  this  plate  the 
height  of  the  ground  story  of  the  facade  has  been  assumed  to  be 
six  entablatures  of  the  second-story  order. 

121.  The  succeeding  plates  otfer  an  opportunity  to  study  the 
various  methods  and  combinations  in  which  columns  attached  to  a 


99 


46 


wall,  and  called  "engaged  columns,"  are  used.  Such  columns  were 
much  employed  by  the  ancient  Romans  in  a  manner  which  modern 
architects  have  frequently  imitated.  The  engaged  columns  form  a 
projecting  part  that  in  certain  instances  adds  greatly  to  the  per- 
spective effect  of  a  facade,  and  sometimes  serves  also  as  an  addi- 
tional support ;  but  in  many  instances  pilasters  would  be  preferable, 
especially  on  the  angles  of  a  building.  The  columns  are  generally 
engaged  in  the  walls  for  from  one-third  to  one-quarter  of  their 
diameter. 

122.  The  Romans  have  also  left  famous  examples  of  super- 
position of  the  orders  in  the  facades  of  their  theatres  and  amphi- 
theatres, although  such  a  combination  is  not  considered  as  effec- 
tive as  an  order  superposed  on  an  arcade,  as  in  Fig.  21. 

123.  It  has  been  explained  that  the  lower  order  in  a  superpo- 
sition should  be  a  little  larger  than  the  one  next  above  it.     In 
Fig.  22  the  height   of  the  upper  columns   is  three  entablatures 
seventy-five  parts  of  the  lower  order,  whose  columns  are  four  entab- 
latures  in   height  (as   is   shown  by  the   figures  at  the  left-hand 
margin). 

The  same  rules  have  been  observed  in  the  two  exercises 
that  follow.  The  Ionic  order,  placed  above  the  Doric  in  Fig.  23  is 
a  little  smaller  than  the  Doric;  the  height  of  the  column  being  but 
three  Ens  seventy-five  parts  of  the  lower  order.  The  Corinthian 
column  placed  on  the  Ionic  in  Fig.  24  has  but  three  Ens  seventy 
parts  of  the  height  of  the  Ionic.  This  will  give  in  each  instance 
for  the  column  of  the  upper  order  a  lower  diameter  that  is  substan- 
tially the  same  as  the  upper  diameter  of  the  column  over  which  it 
is  placed.  At  the  same  time  the  height  of  the  second  story,  as 
well  as  the  arches  and  column  there  used,  is  reduced  proportion- 
ally, unless  the  column  shafts  be  attenuated  beyond  the  rule  here 
employed 

124.  Taking  the  height  of  three  entablatures  and  seventy-five 
parts  of  the  first  story  order,  for  the  total  height  of  the  columns  in 
the  second-story  order  in  Fig.  22  by  re-dividing  that  height  into 
four  parts,  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  the  height  of  the  second-story 
entablature  in  relation  to  the  column  with  which  it  is  used. 

125.  In  elevation    it  will    be    seen   that  the   piers   of   the 
second  story  (Fig.  22)  are  not  as  wide  as  those  of  the  story  below, 


100 


Chieregati  Palace,  Vicenza,  Italy;  Andrea  Palladio,  Architect. 
Detail  of  courtyard  fagade,  showing  Renaissance  use  of  Ionic  over  Doric  Order,  both  being 

of  exceptionally  renned  and  Classic  proportions. 
(Compare  with  detail  of  Theater  of  Marcellus  opposite  page  198.) 


DORIC  -  ORDER; 


PLATE  XXIV. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXIV.) 


101 


\ 


vSVPERPOSmON- 


r- 


t 


^ ITT. ^^TT. 

•DORIC 


w/////^///''/////////^ 


Fig.  22. 


103 


48 


by  an  appreciable  amount.  Although  the  figures  given  show  a 
difference  of  only  five  parts,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  unit 
employed  in  the  upper  order  is  smaller  than  that  used  in  the  lower 
story,  and  therefore  the  difference  is  somewhat  more  than  that 
which  the  actual  figures  suggest. 

126.  By  referring  to  the  section  (Fig.  22)  it  will  be  seen  that 
in  this  example  the  second-story  column  shaft  at  the  base,  lines 
with  the  frieze  and  column  shaft  at  the  neck  of  the  order  below, 
while  the  second-story  pedestal  and  column  base  project  beyond 
this  line.     This  arrangement  allows  the  center  line  of  the  second- 
story  column  to  be  over  the  center  line  of  the  column  below. 

127.  In  Fig.  23  another  method  is  followed;  here  the  face  of 
the  pedestal  or  die  of  the  second-story  order  is  placed  in  plane 
with  the  frieze  and  column  neck  below,  when  it  becomes  impossi- 
ble for  the  center  line  of  the  columns  to  coincide ;  there  being,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  line  in  the  section,  a  difference  of  eight  parts 
between  these  center  lines. 

128.  In  Fig.  24  again,  we  find  that  the  base  of  the  shaft  of 
the  second-story  order  lines  with  the  neck  of  the  shaft  below. 

129.  Where  a  pedestal  is  given  to  a  second-story  super-im- 
posed order,  except  under  exceptional  circumstances,  the  method 
shown  in  Fig.  23  would  probably  be  most  certain  of  making  a 
favorable  impression  upon  the  observer,  although  it  might  be  pos- 
sible that  a  compromise  between  the  methods  shown  in  Figs.  23 
and  24  would  better  solve  the  problem.     Such  a  question  must  be 
decided  by  the  judgment  of  the  designer.     It  might  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  where  the  second-story  column  is  placed  upon  the  entab- 
lature of    the   first-story   order  without   the   interposition    of    a 
pedestal,  the  best  effect  would  invariably  be  obtained  by  directly 
lining — in  section — the  face  of  the  foot  of  the  second-story  column 
shaft  with  the  face  of  the  neck  of  the  shaft  below. 

130.  The  facade  shown  in  Fig.  22  is  composed  of  two  rows  of 
super-imposed  arches,  one  of  the  Tuscan  and  the  other  of  the  Doric 
Order,  each  pier  carrying  on  its  face  an  attached  column  shaft. 

The  Doric  Order  is  raised  on  a  support  forming  a  pedestal 
and  having  a  cap  and  base. 

131.  Fig.  23  is  a  facade  of  two  stories,  with  the  Ionic  Order 
placed  over  the  Doric  Order.     The  columns  are  engaged  in  the 


104 


'DORIC*  ORDER 


u — ^i^iri- _ i*£L  6o  JL  t,!T 


N-    C      i    |-J -I 


COLO1SNAPED  -  GALLERY- 

PLATE  XXV. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXV  ) 


105 


vSVPERPQSmON- 


1 

1 

1 

.k 

i 

]( 

s 

1 

3 

—70  _ 

i 

i 

i 

1 

Fig.  23. 


107 


SVPERPOSITION 


T 


Fig.  24. 


108 


Porto  Palace,  Vicenza,  Italy  (1588);  Vicenzo  Scamozzi,  Architect. 
A  Renaissance  example  of  the  use  of  Composite  pilasters  over  an  Ionic  colonnade. 


CORINTHIAN 


«l         >* 


ELEVATION  -A-bj  •  SECTION -C-D- 


-PLAJsl*- 

!,£«. ,          2,f«. 


CAMPANILE- 


PLATE  XXVI. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  ot  Portfolio  Plate  XXVI.) 


109 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS  51 

wall  which  is  pierced  with  arches  between  the  lower  columns, 
and  with  rectangular  windows  between  the  upper  columns.  The 
windows  are  ornamented  with  frames  or  architraves  with  an  outer 
pilaster  finish  carrying  consoles,  the  whole  being  surmounted  by 
an  entablature  with  a  pediment.  The  details  of  these  parts  should 
be  taken  from  the  examples  of  similar  details  shown  in  Plate 
XXVIII. 

The  support  or  pedestal  of  the  Ionic  Order  forms  a  balustrade 
in  the  bay  of  the  window. 

132.  In  Fig.  24  is  shown  a  section  of  a  facade  of  two  stories 
where  the  Ionic  Order  is  used  with  the  Corinthian  above  it.     The 
columns  are  placed  between  arches,  forming  an  arcaded  gallery. 
The  windows  shown  are  found  in  the  wall  at  the  back  of  the  gal- 
lery, and  the  upper  entablature  is  surmounted  by  a  parapet  wall  or 
balustrade. 

EXAMINATION  PLATES 

133.  The   student   who    has  followed  closely  this  analysis 
with  its  application,  will  have  an  intelligent  knowledge  of  the 
Orders,  and  may  put  his  knowledge  to  practical  use  in  the  exer- 
cises which  follow. 

IN  GENERAL. 

In  laying  out,  from  the  descriptions  and  plates,  the  various 
problems  which  follow,  some  differences  from  the  proportions 
already  given  may  occasionally  be  found.  These  differences,  in 
all  cases  attendant  upon  some  ethical  reason  or  principle  of  the 
problem  involved,  must  be  understood  by  the  student  before  he 
attempts  to  apply  the  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  orders  already 
acquired.  Then,  from  the  general  dimensions  given  to  determine 
the  proportions  of  the  problems,  he  will  find  it  possible  to  com- 
plete the  design  by  the  application  of  the  various  details  shown  in 
the  preceding  plates.  These  exercises  require  the  application  of 
what  the  student  has  previously  learned,  to  actual — if  academic — 
problems,  while  they  will  also  serve  to  illustrate  such  details  as 
the  proportions  of  arcades  and  openings,  and  the  spacing  of 
columns  and  of  piers. 

134.  These  exercises  must  be  drawn  out  in  pencil  before  ink- 
ing in  any  parts  of  the  drawing.     The  plan  is  the  prime  essential 


111 


52 


and  should  be  first  determined  and  drawn  out.  In  starting  a 
drawing,  either  in  plan  or  elevation,  the  general  principles  given  in 
paragraphs  5,  6,  9,  10,  and  11  should  be  observed.  The  center  line 
or  axis  must  first  be  established  in  order  to  determine  the  relation 
and  the  placing  of  the  drawing  upon  the  paper. 

135.  The  dimension  figures  given  throughout  these  exercises 
may  be  omitted  from  the  drawing;  but  all  the  lettering,  both  large 
and  small,  must  be  included.     The  plate  must  be  signed  and  dated 
in  the  lower  left  or  right-hand  corner,  and  sent  to  the  School  for 
correction  and  criticism.     The  plates  must  be  taken  up  and  drawn 
out  in  the  order  given  and  the  first  plates  submitted  when  three 
are  completed  in  order  that  the  student  may  profit  by  the  instruc- 
tor's corrections  as  he  progresses  with  his  work. 

The  Examination  for  this  Instruction  Paper  consists  of  h'fteen  plates, 
which  should  be  sent  to  the  School  in  six  instalments: 

1st  Instalment  A,  B,  and  C,  4th   Instalment  I,  J,  and  K, 

2nd  "          D  and  E,  5th  "  L  and  M, 

3rd  "          F,-G,  andH,  6th  "  N  and  O. 

Each  Instalment  should  be  sent  as  soon  as  completed. 

The  paper  for  these  plates  should  be  purchased  in  sheets 
22  inches  X  30  inches.  (Imperial  size).  Some  of  the  plates  are 
to  be  11  X  15  inches  (^  of  Imperial  size)  with  border  line  ^  inch 
inside,  making  panel  10  inches  X  14  inches.  Others  are  to  be 
13  X  18  inside  of  border  line,  for  which  use  ^  an  Imperial  sheet; 
while  a  few  will  require  the  whole  sheet  and  should  be  20  inches  X 
28  inches  inside  of  border  lines. 

PLATES  A  AND  B. 

136.  These  exercises  are  shown  in  Fig.  4  and  Plate  II  respec- 
tively.    Fig.  4  should  be  drawn  to  the  size  shown  in  the  margin, 
each  unit  representing  one  inch.     Therefore  the  finished  plates 
will  be  10"  X  14"  in  size.     Plate  B  should  be  an  accurate  copy  of 
Plate  II.     Leave  out  dimensions. 

PLATE  C. 

137.  The  sheet  of  mouldings  shown  in  Fig.  5,  is  to  be  redrawn 
on  a  plate  whose  border  line  is  10"  Xl4".   The  names  of  the  mould- 
ings with  the  general  title  of  the   plate   should   be   lettered  in, 
following  as  closely  as  possible  the  model  illustration. 


112 


w///?///////y////fa^ 


PLATE  XXVII. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXVII.) 


113 


IONIC*  ORDER/ 


i^r  "six  ^Jir"  z^3  r^^-i^riTxiv  so  — J 
'   " 


M 

-ENTRANCE  -MOTIVE- 

PLATE  XXVIII. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXVIII.) 


115 


THE    ROMAN   ORDERS  53 

PLATE    D. 

138.  Draw  a  plate  to  the  border-line  size  of  10"xl4"  and 
arrange  after  the  manner  shown  in  Plate   VIII,  assembling  the 
various  details  of  the  Doric  Order  shown  in  Plates  III,  IV,  V  and 
VI,  and  following  the  measurements  for  the  separate  parts  therein 
given.     The  placing  of  these  details  on  the  plate,  with  their  rela- 
tive size,  lettering,  etc.,  is  to  be  as  shown  in  the  model,  Plate  VIII. 
Either  the  Mutular  or  the  Denticular  Order  may  be  drawn  out,  as 
the  student  may  prefer. 

PLATE  E. 

139.  The  Ionic  Order  is  to  be  drawn  and  the  finished  plate  is 
to  correspond    in  appearance  and  arrangement  writh  the  model, 
Plate  XIII,  and   is  to  follow  the  construction  and  proportions 
given  in  plates  X,  XI  and  XII. 

PLATE  F. 

140.  The  Corinthian  Order  is  to  be  drawn  so  as  to  resemble 
the  model,  Plate  XXI,  and  is  to  follow  the  measurements,  propor- 
tions, etc.,  of  Plates  XVII,  XVIII  and  XIX.     Plates  XV  and  XVI 
should  assist  materially  in  understanding  the  method  of  drawing 
the  Corinthian  capital  shown  in  Plate  XVII. 

PLATE  Q. 

141.  The  arched  doorway  of  the  Denticular  Doric  Order,  shown 
blocked  out  in  rough  outline  in  Fig.  25,  is  to  be  drawn  to  follow  the 
general  dimensions,  and  to  include  all  the  details  given  in  the 
plates  of  that  order.     The  border  line  should  be  20x28  inches  in 
size. 

The  width  of  the  archway  is  two  and  one-half  entablatures, 
and  the  columns,  from  center  to  center,  are  three  entablatures  and 
sixty  parts  apart.  The  heights,  and  the  placing  of  the  plan  and 
elevation  on  the  plate,  will  all  be  easily  ascertained  by  following 
the  inch  units  shown  against  the  border  line,  Fig.  25. 

PLATE  H. 

142.  The  archway  of  the  Ionic  Order  shown  in  Plate  XXII  is 
to  be  redrawn  with  the  same  outline  size  as  in  Plate  G.     The 
width  of  the  Ionic  arch  is  two  and  one-quarter  entablatures,  and 


117 


54 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


'l         'i.         '3         '4  5- 


DOOKWAY  - 


Fig.  25. 

its  height  is  equal  to  twice  its  width,  an  accepted  general  rule  for 
proportioning  arches.  The  archway  is  ornamented  with  two  col- 
umns placed  before  pilasters,  which  are  in  turn  set  against  the 
face  of  the  piers. 


118 


55 


Apply  to  this  exercise  all  the  details  of  the  preceding  studies 
in  the  Ionic  Order  and  draw  out,  as  shown  in  this  plate,  the  plan, 
the  half  elevation,  and  the  section. 

PLATE  I. 

143.  As  an  application  of  the  study  of  the  Corinthian  Order, 
draw  out  an  archway  similar  to  that  of  the   Ionic  Order  just 
described.     The  drawing  should  show  a  plan,  section,  and  half 
elevation,    but    should    follow    the    proportions   and   dimensions 
given  in  the  plates  of  the  Corinthian  Order.     The  columns  are 
spaced  about  3  entablatures  and  40  parts  and  the  center  of  the 
arch i volt  is  occupied  by  a  keystone  ornamented  with  the  console 
shown  in  Fig.  10. 

This  problem  is  exactly  like  the  problem  of  the  arched  door- 
way in  the  Ionic  order  except  for  the  fact  that  the  proportions  and 
details  are  those  of  the  Corinthian  Order.  The  distance  3  En. -40 
from  center  to  center  of  the  columns  is  the  only  dimension  given 
for  this  plate.  The  student  is  expected  to  obtain  all  the  other 
necessary  dimensions  from  his  study  of  the  preceding  plates. 

144.  In  drawing  this  problem,  which  will  be  on  a  smaller 
scale  than  the  Corinthian  Order  plates  drawn  before,  the  student 
should  pay  particular  attention  to  the  proportions  of  the  parts. 
Some  little  difficulty  may  be  experienced  in  laying  out  the  smaller 
members.     While  at  such  a  scale  it  may  seem  impracticable  to 
draw  these  members  in  their  true  relative  size,  still,  the  general 
proportions  of  the  details  of  the  order  may  be  clearly  indicated,  if 
carefully  studied  and  drawn.    The  sheet  should  be  20"  X28".    This 
size  is  given  so  that  the  student  will  experience  as  little  difficulty 
as  possible  with  the  smaller  members  and  still  have  the  drawing  of 
a  convenient  size.     Begin  by  drawing  a  vertical  center  line  and  on 
each  side  of  this  lay  out  the  center  lines  of  the  columns. 

PLATE  J. 

145.  This  exercise  requires  that  the  student  use  the  Tuscan 
Order  shown  in  Fig.  6,  and  the  details  shown  in  Plate  II.     This 
order  is  required  because  it  will  be  found  easier  to  use  in  these 
early  problems  on  account  of  the  large  scale  of  the  mouldings  and 
the  few  lines  required  in  their  delineation.     It  is  to  be  drawn  out 


119 


56  THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 

to  the  size  of  13"  X 18"  and  is  to  follow  in  appearance  and  arrange- 
ment, Plate  XXIII.  On  this  plate  the  plan  is  completely  shown, 
while  the  elevation  is  merely  blocked  out  in  the  rough,  in  order 
that  the  student  in  completing  it  may  have  independent  practice 
in  the  use  of  the  order. 

This  problem  displays  the  inner  corner  of  a  square  or  rectan- 
gular court  yard,  which  is  surrounded  by  an  arcade  composed  of  the 
Tuscan  pilaster  and  archway.  The  floor  of  the  gallery  is  raised 
three  steps  of  fifteen  parts  each,  above  the  level  of  the  court. 

146.  The  gallery  is  vaulted  with  semi-circular  vaults;    that 
is,  vaults  whose  form  is  a  semi-circumference.     A  vault  formed 
of    a    semi-circular    arch,   without    penetrations    throughout    its 
whole  length,  is  called  a  barrel  vault.     Two  vaults  of  the  same 
radius  which  intersect  each  other  form  what  is  called  a  groined 
vault,  because  of  the  hips  or  groins  which  mark  their  intersection. 
The  vaults  over  this  gallery  are  barrel  vaults,  which,  by  their  inter- 
sections at  the  angles  as  well  as  by  the  penetrations  of  the  barrel 
vaults  which  correspond  to  the  arches  of  the  gallery,  form  groined 
vaults.     The  dotted  diagonal  lines  on  the  plan  show  the  groins  of 
the  vaults.     The  width  of  the  gallery  is  two  entablatures  and  forty 
parts,  this  width  being  equal  to  the  distance  between  the  pilasters 
of  the  facade.     The  groined  vaults  are  separated  by  a  space  of 
fifty-five  parts,  that  is,  a  distance  equal  to  the  width  of  the  pilaster. 

PLATE   K. 

147.  This  exercise  is  to  be  drawn  out  at  the  same  size  as  the 
one  just  given,  13"xl8",  and  the  plate  numbered   XXIV  is  to  be 
accurately  copied.     The  subject  of    this   exercise  is  a  gallery  in 
the  Doric  Order  with  arches,  surrounding  a  court  or  garden.     The 
arches  rest   upon  piers,  decorated  on  their  faces  with  a    couple 
of  pilasters  spaced  under  alternate  triglyphs.     The  space  between 
the  pilasters,  occupied  by  the  arches  of  the  arcade,  is  determined 
by  the  spacing  of  the  triglyphs,  four  of  which   occur  over  the 
arches.     These  pilasters  are  repeated  in  the  interior  or  the  gallery, 
which  is  covered  by  a  flat  ceiling,  supported  by  an  entablature 
whose  details  are  shown  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  plate.     The 
ceiling  over  the  corner  is  separated  from  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
gallery  by  entablatures  arid  arches  resting  on  pilasters  advancing 


120 


ELEVATION-  SECTION- ;  I 
-A -A-    I      -t>-E>-    " 


PLATE  XXIX. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXIX.) 


121 


THE   ROMAN  ORDERS  57 

from  the  faces  of  the  corner  piers.  This  combination  is  shown  in 
dotted  lines  on  the  plan.  The  gallery  arches  are  repeated  on  the 
blank  wall  which  encloses  the  gallery.  The  exterior  entablature  is 
surmounted  by  a  plain  parapet  or  balustrade,  as  the  roof  of  the 
gallery  is  flat  and  would  be  accessible  from  the  second  story  of  the 

edifice. 

PLATE   L. 

148.  This  exercise  is  fully  drawn  out  in  Plate  XXV,  and 
should  be  copied  by  the  student  at  the  same  size  as  the  ones  just 
preceding.     In  this  example  we  have  shown  a  gallery  with  colon- 
nade ;  no  arches  being  employed  in  the  problem. 

Here  we  have  another  possible  treatment  for  a  gallery  sur- 
souiiding  a  court  or  garden.  It  is  that  of  a  portico  or  colonnade, 
with  a  flat  ceiling,  the  angles  being  strengthened  by  square  piers, 
against  each  face  of  which  a  half  pilaster  is  placed.  This  causes 
two  pilasters  to  occur  in  line  with  the  columns,  and  the  other  two 
to  face  toward  the  interior  of  the  gallery,  with  two  other  half  pilas- 
ters projecting  from  the  surrounding  walls,  opposite  them.  The 
architrave  of  the  connecting  entablature  forms  a  soffit  between 
them,  as  the  dotted  lines  of  the  plan  indicate. 

149.  The  surrounding  walls  are  pierced    by  doors  on  the 
longitudinal  axes  of  the  gallery.     These  doors  are  surrounded  by 
moulded  architraves  and  crowned  by  entablatures  or  door  caps.     A 
wainscot,  or  dado,  is  formed  by  a  string  course  ornamented  with  a 
Vitruvian  scroll  or  wave  (this  is  the  term  applied  to  the  ornament 
whose  detail  is  given  on  this  plate  at  E).     A  plinth,  or  base,  corre- 
sponding in  height  to  the  base  of  the  column,  runs  around  the 
walls ;  its  crowning  moulding  being  formed  of  the  fillet  and  bead 
of  the  column  base.     The  astragal  of  the  capitals  also  continues 
around  the  walls,  which,  in  addition,  are  decorated  with   panels 
intended  to  receive  mural  paintings.     The  flat  ceiling,  or  soffit,  of 
this  gallery  is  similar  to  that  of  the  preceding  exercise  and  is  sup- 
ported or  surrounded  by  the  same  entablature.     The  sloping  roof 
is  formed  of  sheets  of  zinc  or  lead  corresponding  in  width   to 
the  spacing  of  the  triglyphs,  and  with  lips  or  rolls  formed  by  the 
interlocking  edges  of  the  sheets.    On  the  same  axis  with  each  lip  is 
an  antefix  placed  above  the  cornice,  and  shown  in  detail  at  F  on  this 
plate.    In  the  cornice  is  formed  a  gutter  for  the  removal  of  rainwater. 


123 


58 


PLATE  M. 

150.  The  student  is  required  to  design  an  arcade  and  gallery 
using  the  Ionic  Order.  This  gallery  is  to  be  similar  in  treatment 
to  the  one  shown  in  Plate  XXIII,  where  the  Tuscan  Order 
is  employed.  The  plan  of  this  gallery  is  shown  in  Fig. 
26,  while  a  perspective  sketch  of  the  spring  of  the  arches  on 
an  interior  angle  is  shown  in  Fig.  27.  On  the  plan  is  indi- 
cated in  clotted  lines  the  form  of  the  arching  ceiling  over 


Fig.  26. 

this  gallery.  It  is  simply  described  as  a  barrel  vault  with 
the  penetration  from  each  side  of  arches  of  a  less  height  and 
radius.  The  perspective  sketch  shows  the  method  of  treating  the 
impost  moulding  on  the  interior,  breaking  it  around  the  various 
pilasters  forming  the  corner  pier.  On  the  exterior,  the  entablature 
is  crowned  by  a  balustrade  composed  of  balusters  similar  to  those 
shown  in  Plate  XXXIV.  The  plan  will  give  the  width  of  the 
arched  openings  which,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  other  examples 
of  the  Ionic  Order,  are  in  height  twice  their  width.  This  will 
determine  all  the  remaining  proportions  of  the  exercise,  which  is 
to  be  drawn  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  preceding  plates, 
13x18  inches. 


124 


'?IONIC 


ORDER/ 


ROVND^TEMPLE 


PLATE  XXX. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXX.) 


135 


Circular  temple  in  Courtyard  of  San  Pietro,  Montorio,  Rome;  Donate  d'Angnolo  Bramante,  Architect 
Showing  Renaissance  use  of  Doric  Order  in  a  circular  temple  with  domed  lantern  above. 


THE  ROMAN  ORDERS 


59 


PLATE  N. 

151.  In  Plate  XXVI  the  Corinthian  Order  is  used  for 
ornamenting  the  final  or  crowning  story  of  a  Campanile  or  classic 
belfry.  This  problem  is  simply  that  of  the  arch  placed  between 
columns,  which  we  have  already  seen  in  Plate  I;  the  entabla- 
ture being  crowned  with  a  pediment  and  such  other  modifications 
being  made  as  the  problem  suggests.  The  student  is  required 
to  draw  out  this  plate  at  the  same  size  as  those  preceding, 


Fig.  27. 

13"Xl8",  or  if  he  desires  he  may  substitute  the  Ionic  Order  and 
adapt  its  proportions  and  details  to  the  same  plan. 

This  upper  portion  of  a  Campanile  may  belong  to  a  church,  a 
city  hall,  or  any  other  important  edifice.  The  four  facades  are  the 
same ;  each  is  composed  of  an  arch  flanked  by  two  pilasters,  carry- 
ing an  entablature,  a  pediment,  and  a  parapet.  Each  facade  makes 
a  projection  from  the  mass  of  the  tower.  The  four  pediments 
penetrate  the  plain  parapet  which  will,  in  turn,  be  surmounted  by 
a  roof  or  cupola.  The  interior  is  covered  by  a  dome  with  penden- 
tives  (see  paragraphs  157-158). 

PLATE  O. 

152.  Plate  O  is  shown  in  Plate  XXVII.  This  exercise 
requires  merely  the  application  of  the  arch  and  column  of  an 


127 


60  THE    ROMAN   ORDERS 

arched  doorway  of  the  Tuscan  Order  to  an  actual  problem;  in  this 
instance,  arbitrarally  termed  a  "guard  house,"  the  student  is 
required  to  arrange  his  drawing  on  a  sheet  of  the  same  size  as  in 
the  previous  example,  and  as  shown  in  this  plate.  The  plan  and 
details  being  given,  he  must  draw  out  the  elevation. 

153.  The  central  part  of  the  plan  in  this  exercise  is  a  porch, 
with  arches,  giving  access  .by  three  doors  to  rooms  placed  on  each 
side  of  the  entrance,  and  to  a  hall  or  larger  room  at  the  rear. 

154.  We  have  called  this  problem  a  guard-house,  because  the 
disposition  of  the  plan  and  the  architectural  character  of  the 
facade  are  well  adapted  to  a  problem  of  this  character.     The  edi- 
fice may  be  completed  by  adding  to  its  depth  two  pilasters  or 
bays  on  each  side,  two  entablatures  and  seventy  parts  (2  En.  70) 
apart  from  axis  to  axis ;  and  in  this  way  the  lateral  facade  would 
be  composed  of  three  bays  between  pilasters,  with  an  opening 
in  each  bay;  the  part  added  to  the  plan  forms  a  large  hall  to  which 
the  door  placed  at  the  back  of  the  porch  gives  access.     This  hall 
would  then  be  lighted  laterally  by  two  windows  on  each  side.     The 
principal  facade  has  a  projection  formed  by  two  columns  placed 
on  pedestals  and  backed  by  two  pilasters. 

All  the  unanalyzed  or  new  details  of  the  Tuscan  Order  used  in 
this  exercise  are  shown  at  a  larger  scale  on  this  plate.  The 
interior  entablature  of  this  problem  is  the  same  as  the  exterior. 

This  concludes  the  required  Examination;  the  remaining  plates  are 
given  as  a  guide  for  students  desiring  to  do  further  work  by  themselves. 

PLATE    P. 

155.  The  entrance   pavilion   in   the   Ionic  Order,  shown   in 
Plate  XXVIII,  is  a  problem  similar  to  the  one  that  has  just  been 
taken  up.     The  student  is  required  to  reproduce  this  plate  at  the 
large  size  to  which  he  has  already  drawn  Plate  O,  with  border  line 
of  13x18  inches. 

The  small  edifice  is  such  as  might  be  used  at  the  entrance  to 
certain  public  buildings,  its  plan — the  same  as  that  of  the  guard 
house — being  composed  of  a  porch  with  a  room  upon  either  side. 
One  of  these  rooms  might  be  the  lodge  for  a  porter,  the  other 
might  be  a  ticket  office.  One  quarter  of  the  plan  only  is  given  as 
the  arrangement  is  the  same  on  the  other  sides  of  the  axes. 


128 


:O)RINTHIAN*  ORDER* 


CIRCV1AR.-TEMPLE 


PLATE  XXXI. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXXI.) 


129 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 


156.  The  front  is  composed  of  three  divisions  separated  by 
columns  or  pilasters.     In  the  center  is  the  archway  of  the  porch 
and  at  each  side  is  a  window  whose  sill  is  supported  by  consoles, 
and  surmounting  the  outside  frame  are  consoles  of  a  different  char- 
acter which  support  the  cornice  and  pediment.     These  details  are 
shown  in  A,  B  and  C  on  this  plate.     The  same  details  may  be 
applied  to  the  door  of  the  porch. 

The  windows  at  the  side  are  similar  to  those  on  the  principal 
elevation.  The  entablature  is  surmounted  by  a  balustrade  divided 
by  pedestals  carrying  vases ;  the  details  of  these  balusters  and  of 
the  vases  are  shown  on  this  plate. 

157.  The  porch  is  square  in  plan  but  has  a  ceiling  or  "cupola" 
in  the  form  of  a  dome  or  spherical  vault;  that  is,  the  ceiling  has 
the  shape  of   a   segment   of  a 

sphere,  whose  radius  is  2-En  and 
20  parts,  as  shown  in  the  sectional 
elevation  in  Plate  XXVIII.  This 
kind  of  ceiling  requires  explan- 
ation. The  ceiling  must  be  sup- 
ported on  the  walls  of  the  porch, 
which  is  square  in  plan,  but  the 
domical  ceiling  is  circular  in 
plan ;  therefore  a  horizontal  sec-  Fig.  28. 

tion  of  the  porch  at  the  point  where  the  walls  end  and  the  ceiling 
begins  will  show  a  square  for  the  section  of  the  walls  and  a  circle 
for  the  section  of  the  ceiling.  These  two  geometrical  figures  must 
be  joined  in  some  way  so  that  the  walls  will  support  the  ceiling 
and  the  ceiling  cover  all  the  space  enclosed  by  the  walls. 

Whenever  a  square  space  is  to  be  covered  by  a  dome,  the  semi- 
diagonal  of  the  square  may  be  taken  as  the  radius  for  the  circle 
which  forms  the  base  or  springing  line  of  the  dome.  Fig.  28  shows 
at  ABCD  such  a  square  and  circle.  If  the  four  walls  which 
form  the  sides  of  the  square  building  are  now  continuc'd  upward, 
they  will  cut  into  the  spherical  segment  whose  base  is  represented 
by  the  circle,  since  this  circle  overhangs  the  square  on  all  four 
sides.  The  figures  cut  from  the  domical  surface  by  the  walls  will 
be  segments  of  circles, — the  intersection  of  a  plane  with  a  segment 
of  a  sphere.  These  segments  of  circles  are  shown  in  plate  XXVIII 


131 


THE  ROMAN  ORDERS 


as  the  semi-circular  arches  of  radius  1-En  and  50  parts,  which  cover 
the  doorways.  A  horizontal  section  taken  through  the  dome  at  the 
elevation  of  the  crowns  of  these  circular  segments  will  show  a 
circle  which  (in  plan)  will  be  inscribed  in  the  square  formed  by  the 
four  walls,  as  shown  by  the  smaller  circle  E  F  G  H  in  Fig.  27. 
This  circle  is  also  shown  dotted  in  the  plan  in  Plate  XXVIII. 

The  spherical  surface  which  forms  the  ceiling  of  the  porch  has 
now  been  cut  into,  first  by  the  four  walls  as  they  are  continued 
upward  from  the  springing  line  (ABC  D)  of  the  dome,  and  second . 
by  a  horizontal  plane  (E  F  G  H)  passing  through  the  crowns  of 
the  four  arches  cut  from  the  sphere  by  the  walls.  All  that  is  left 
of  the  spherical  surface  is  a  triangular  segment  E  D  H  in  each 
corner.  This  portion  of  the  ceiling  is  called  the  pendentive.  In 
Plate  XXVIII  an  elevation  of  the  pendentive  is  shown  at  P. 

158.  The  horizontal  plane  at  the  crowns  of  the  arches  cuts 
out  from  the  spherical  surface  a  circle  (E  F  G  H),  which  may  now 
be  covered  over  by  a  dome,  or  segment  of  a  sphere,  which  may 
spring  directly  from  it.   In  Plate  XXVIII  this  circle  is  represented 
in  elevation  by  the  first  horizontal  line  of  mouldings  above  the 
arches.    In  this  particular  case,  the  domical  ceiling  or  cupola  does 
not  spring  directly  from  this  circle  but  a  small  cylindrical  band,  or 
entablature,  is  built  up  above  it  for  a  height  of  90  parts,  from  the 
top  of  which  the  ceiling  springs. 

PLATE  Q. 

159.  The  subject  of  this  exercise  (Plate  XXIX)  is  a  com- 
memorative chapel  of  the  Denticular  Doric  Order,  and  is  to  be 
drawn  at  the  size  indicated — 13"Xl8".     This  is  the  first  of  three 
exercises  where  a  dome  plays  an  important  part  in  the  exterior 
effect  of  an  edifice.     In  any  study,  in  elevation,  of  a  building 
employing  a  dome  or  cylindrical  story,  it  must  be  remembered 
that,  in  perspective,  that  portion  which  is  circular  in  plan  looks 
considerably  smaller  with  reference  to  the  square  base  from  which 
it  springs,  than  it  does  in  any  elevation, — on  account  of  the  differ- 
ence in  plan  between  a  square,  and  a  circle  which  is  contained 
within  such  a  square; — in  other  words,  the  circle  remains  of  the 
same  diameter  if  seen  from  any  point;  while  an  object  square  in 
plan,  seen  from  any  other  position  than  in  direct  elevation,  has  its 
width  considerably  increased  by  the  projecting  corners. 


132 


7  a 


DORJC  -  ORDER- 


ELEVATION -A-.A£     •  OICT1ON  -  b  - 


PAVI  LION 


PLATE  XXXII. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXXII.) 


133 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS  68 

160.  The  plan  of  the  chapel  is  a  square,  having  on  the  side 
of  the  principal   facade,   a   projection   formed    by    two    columns 
placed  upon  pedestals  and  enclosing  an  arch  whose  proportions  are 
like  those  of  Fig.  25,  this  projection  being  crowned  by  a  pediment. 
The  opposite  side  has  a  semi-circular  projection,  in  which  is  located 
a  niche  in  which  the  altar  may  be  placed. 

161.  The  entablature  surrounds  the  entire  building,  but  the 
triglyphs  are  found  only  beneath  the  projecting  pediment  of  the 
main  facade.     The  building  itself  is  surmounted  by  a  low  attic  in 
the  form  of  a  plain  parapet,  above  which  are  two  steps  forming  a 
base  for  the  domical  roof. 

162.  The  interior  of  the  chapel  is  a  square  with  its  floor 
raised  three  steps  above  the  exterior  level.     In  the  corners  are 
pilasters  forty  parts  in  width  and  fifteen  in  projection ;  these  pilas- 
ters, and  also  the  entablature  which  surmounts  them,  are  repetitions 
of  the  exterior  order.    The  ceiling  is  a  semi-circular  vault  or  dome. 

163.  At  the  side  of  the  facade  is  indicated  the  commencement 
of  a  retaining  wall,  with  a  grille,  which  might  be  continued  to 
enclose  a  plot  of  land. 

PLATE  R. 

164.  Exercise  R  is  a  circular  temple  (Plate  XXX,  and  plan 
Fig.  29)  with  a  pediinented  porch  or  portico,  showing  the  use  of 
the  order  set  upon  a  dado  around  the  interior  walls.     The  ceiling 
is  domical,  with  an  opening  in  the  center,  and  is  ornamented  on 
the  under  side  by  a  series  of  recessed  panels  called  caissons  or 
coffers.     This  plate,  like  the  one  preceding,  is  to  be  drawn  at  the 
size  of  13x18  inches. 

165.  Plate  XXX  shows  an  Ionic  portico  or  porch  attached  to 
an  edifice  circular  in  form.     The  circular  hall  is  six  entablatures 
twenty  parts  in  diameter,  and  the  thickness  of  the  wall  is  fifty  parts. 
The  perimeter  of  the  hall  is  divided  by  pilasters  of  a  smaller  order 
than  that  on  the  exterior  into  twelve  bays,  as  shown  in  the  plan  in 
Fig.  29.     The  difference  in  size  is  due  to  the  pedestal,  ninety  parts 
in  height,  on  which  the  pilasters  are  placed. 

The  scale  for  this  interior  order  is  obtained  by  dividing  the 
total  height  of  the  pilaster  and  its  entablature  into  five  parts  (each 
part  representing  one  entablature  of  the  interior  order). 


135 


64 


166.  This  circular  hall  is  covered  by  a  spherical  cupola  or 
dome,  divided  into  caissons  or  coffers,  the  drawing  of  which  consti- 
tutes the  most  interesting  part  of  this  exercise;  it  will  therefore 
be  explained  as  clearly  as  possible.   It  is  illustrated  on  Plate  XXX. 

167.  The  projection  of  the  interior  pilasters  being  ten  parts 
(at  the  scale  of  that  order)  from  the  face  of  the  wall,  the  interior 
diameter  of  the  springing  of  the  cupola  is  six  entablatures.     Draw 
a  half  plan  of  the  cupola,  dividing  its  circumference  into  twelve 
equal  parts  and  then  draw  the  radii;  lay  off  on  each  one  of  these 
radii,  outside  the  circumference,  the  profile  of  a  rib  and  the  two 
coffers  one  on  each  side  of  the  rib,  each  eighteen  parts  wide,  and 
the  two  coffers  seven  parts  each  and  three  parts  in  depth.     Next 
draw  in  on  the  plan  two  semi-circles,  one  of  three  entablatures  and 
three  parts  radius,  the  other  of  three  entablatures  six  parts  radius. 
Having  thus  established  the  whole  profile  of  the  springing  of  the 
cupola,  draw  from  each  division  a  radius  to  the  center;  then  show 
above  this  plan,  centering  on  the  same  axis,  the  section  of  the 
cupola,  whose  center  will  be  found  forty  parts  below  the  first  hori- 
zontal course.     This  height  of  forty  parts  forms  a  conge"  with  an 
astragal  above  the  cornice.     The  cupola  is  divided  into  five  rows 
of  caissons  whose  height  is  relative  to  their  width.     Notice  that 
the  first  band  above  the  astragal  is  fifteen  wide;  draw  the  vertical 
line  from  the  point  A  (section)  to  the  point  A  (plan);  draw  the 
quarter  circle  A  which  intersects  at  E  and  F  the  lines  of  the  rib. 
Take  from  the  plan  the  width  EF  and  lay  it  off  from  A  to  B  along 
the  curve  on  the  section,  thus  obtaining  the  height  of  the  first  row 
of  caissons.     From  the  point  B  (section)  draw  a  vertical  to  the 
(plan)  and  draw  the  quarter  circle  through  B '  in  plan  intersecting 
the  radii  at  G  and  H.     This  distance  (G  H)  laid  off  along  the 
curve  from   B   to   C    shows   the  width   of  the  second  horizontal 
band.     Now  project  the  point  0  (section)  to  C'  (plan)  and  draw 
the  quarter  circle  C '  on  which  C '  D '  will  give  the  height  of  the 
second  row  of  caissons  which  will  be  laid  off  from  C  to  D  along 
the  curve  in  the  section.     Continue  this  operation  up  to  the  fifth 
row  of  caissons.     As  to  the  widths  of  the  coffers,  they  are  found  on 
the  plan  of  each  row  of  caissons  and  consequently  diminish  gradu- 
ally with  them.     The  profile  of   the   caissons   is   formed   in   the 
section  in  this  way  and  their  location  is  found  in  plan.     From 


136 


IONIC -ORDER 


-TEMPLE  WITH'PORTICQ 


PLATE  XXXIII. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  sl/.e  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXXIII.) 


137 


THE    ROMAN   ORDEKS  65 

each  angle  of  the  profile  of  the  caisson  draw  a  horizontal  line 
through  the  section;  this  will  give  the  horizontal  lines  on  which  all 
the  points  of  intersection  will  be  found  in  projecting  the  verticals 
from  the  corresponding  points  in  the  plan.  Thus,  from  the  point 
I  (plan)  which  is  found  on  the  upper  line  of  the  topmost  row  of 
caissons,  draw  a  vertical  up  to  the  point  I  (section)  which  is  on 
the  corresponding  line  in  the  section;  from  the  point  J  (plan), 
which  is  found  on  the  lower  line  of  the  same  row  of  caissons,  draw 
a  vertical  to  the  point  J  (section).  Thus  the  circle  I  (plan)  is  rep- 
resented in  the  section  by  the  horizontal  line  I;  the  circle  J,  in 
the  plan,  by  the  horizontal  J  in  section,  the  circles  K,  L,  M,  and 
N  in  plan  by  the  horizontals  K,  L,  M,  and  N  of  the  section.  The 
points  of  intersection  of  the  radiating  ribs  in  plan  with  the  circu- 
lar segment  I,  should  be  projected  vertically  to  the  horizontal  I  in 
the  section.  Those  of  the  circle  J,  to  the  horizontal  J;  those  of 
the  circles  K,  L,  M,  and  N,  to  the  corresponding  horizontals  in  the 
section.  In  this  manner  on  each  horizontal  of  the  section,  are 
found  the  points  by  means  of  which  the  curves  of  the  bands  may 
be  drawn. 

168.  To  draw  the  elevations  of  the  stones  of  the  circular  part, 
it  is  necessary  to  show  their  location  in  plan,  and,  starting  from  the 
semi-pilaster  which  forms  the  junction  of  the  portico  with  the  cir- 
cular walls,  the  stones  are  of  the  same  length  as  those  of  the  straight 
wall  at  the  back  of  the  portico.     For  the  dentils  of  the  circular 
cornice,  the  divisions  in  plan  must  also  be  made.     The  plan  of 
this  temple  is  shown  in  Fig.  29. 

PLATE  S. 

169.  In  Plate  XXXI  is  shown  a  temple  that  is  entirely  circu- 
lar in  plan   and  surrounded  by  a    circular  colonnade  of  Corin- 
thian columns.     The  ceiling  of  the  domed  interior  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  building  shown  in  Plate  XXX,  while  the  ceiling  of  the 
narrow  porch  outside  the  wall  of  the  building  is  ornamented  with 
coffers  or  panels,  as  is  shown  on  the  plan  below.     This  temple  is 
also  to  be  drawn  out  to  the  size  of  13X18  inches. 

170.  The  axis  of  the  colonnade  is  a  circle  of  a  radius  of  three 
entablatures  and  twenty  parts,  this  circle  being  divided  into  twenty 
equal  parts  which  give  the  spacing  of  the  columns.     The  width  of 


139 


66 


THE    ROMAN    ORDERS 


the  portico,  from  the  axis  of  the  columns  to  the  circular  wall  which 
is  thirty  parts  thick,  is  one  En.  The  colonnade  is  raised  on  a 
circular  platform  reached  by  seven'  steps,  while  the  floor  of  the 
hall  is  raised  one  step  above  this  level.  The  entrance  to  this  hall 


TTi 


I'GORINTHIAN- 
ORDER? 


i  A'MONVMENTAb 
•APPROACH* 


*AN -ENTRANCE* 


PLATE  XXXIV. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXXIV.) 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS  67 

is  a  doorway  two  entablatures  seventy-nine  parts  in  height  by  one 
entablature  and  twenty  parts  in  width.  Half  of  the  plan  shows 
the  arrangement  of  the  columns  and  shows  that  their  capitals  an; 
placed  square  with  the  radii  which  pass  through  the  columns.  It 
will  be  necessary  in  drawing  an  elevation,  to  draw  the  plan  of  all 
the  capitals  since  each  one  is  seen  in  a  different  position,  and  it  is 
only  by  means  of  the  plan  that  the  position  of  the  details  which 
make  up  the  capital  can  be  determined.  Notice  that  the  plinths 
of  the  bases,  which,  up  to  the  present  time  have  been  square  in 
plan,  are  here  circular  because  their  corners  would  partially  block 
up  the  spaces  between  the  columns.  The  other  quarter  of  the  plan 
shows  the  disposition  of  the  ceiling  of  the  portico,  the  soffit  of  the 
exterior  cornice,  and  the  caissons  of  the  cupola. 

171.  The  ceiling  of  the  portico  rests  upon  a  small  cornice  and 
is  divided  into  panels,  which  correspond  to  the  columns  and  the 
spaces  between  the  columns.     In  order  to  draw  the  caissons  of  the 
cupola,  it  will  be  necessary  to  repeat  Plate  R  and  go  back  to  this 
study  for  the  details  of  the  lantern. 

PLATE  T. 

172.  In   Plate  XXXII  is  found  a  pavilion  in  the  Mutular 
Doric  Order.     It  is  to  be  drawn  with  the  border  line  of  the  same 
size  as  in  the  other  plates,  but,  by  omitting  the  plan  here  shown, 
it  will  be  possible  to  increase  the  height  of  the  building  consider- 
ably and  still  bring  it  within  the  outlines  of  the  drawing. 

173.  This  small  building  is  raised  ten  steps  above  the  level 
of  a  garden,  and  is  composed  of  a  portico  "in  antis,"  giving  access 
to  the  room  beyond.     The  plan  fonns  a  square  from  center  to  cen- 
ter of  the  corner  pilasters.     This  dimension  corresponds  to  nine 
divisions,  center  to  center,  of  the  triglyphs  in  the  entablature. 

174.  The  four  pilasters  of  the  lateral  facade  form  three  regu- 
lar bays  of  three  spacings  of  the  triglyphs.    The  intercolumniation 
in  the  center  of  the  principal  facade  or  portico  is  three  entabla- 
tures, five  times  the  distance  from  the  center  of  one  triglyph  to  the 
center  of  another,  which  is  sixty  parts,  and  the  space  between  the 
antae  and  the  columns  is  one  entablature  and  twenty  parts,  or  twice 
the  distance  between  the  triglyphs,  center  to  center.     The  depth 
of  the  portico  corresponds  to  one  bay  of  the  pilasters  of  the  lateral 


143 


68 


facade,  and  the  divisions  of  the  pilasters  of  the  rear  facade  cor- 
respond to  the  columns  of  the  portico.  In  the  middle  of  this  rear 
facade  is  found  a  window  which  lights  the  interior;  this  window  is 
twice  its  width  in  height  and  is  placed  above  a  wainscot  of  the 
height  (1  En)  shown  in  the  section. 

175.  The  entrance  door  is  decorated  with  a  frame  similar  to 
that  in  Plate  XXV,  and  has  an  entablature  with  a  pediment  whose 
details  are  given  on  this  plate,  at  C.     The  entablature  which  sur- 
rounds the  ceiling  of  the  portico  and  of  the  hall  is  also  the  same  as 
was  used  in  Plate  XXV. 

176.  The  bases  of  wall  and  portico,  and  of  the  lateral  and  rear 
facades,  are  composed  of  a  plain  pedestal,  or  dado,  one  entablature 
in  height,  and  with  a  rusticated  part   three   entablatures   high. 


DOKJ10 
•TEMP1X- 


Fig.  30. 


"Rusticated"  applies  to  masonry  work  in  which  the  joints  are 
strongly  emphasized.  The  dado  has  a  plinth  base  of  a  height  cor- 
responding to  the  height  of  the  column  base,  and  a  cap  fourteen 
parts  high.  The  bead  and  conge"  of  the  bases  continue  around  and 
above  this  plinth ;  the  rusticated  stones  are  alternately  twenty-six 
and  sixty-eight  parts  wide  with  sinkages  of  two  parts. 

177.  The  roof  is  pyramidal  in  form  and  is  crowned  by  a  pine- 
apple, of  which  the  detail  is  given  at  D  in  this  plate,  XXXII,  and 
the  balustrade  shown  at  the  left-hand  side  of  the  facade  would  be 
the  rail  of  a  terrace  on  the  edge  of  which  this  pavilion  is  located. 
This  terrace,  although  the  pavilion  does  not  communicate  with  it, 
would  be  accessible  by  flights  of  steps  placed  laterally.  For  this 


144 


69 


the  student  may  exercise  his  own  imagination,  and  draw  out  sepa- 
rately at  a  smaller  scale  a  plan  giving  his  idea  of  the  general 
arrangement. 

PLATE  U. 

178.  The  facade  of  a  Doric  temple  is  to  be  drawn  by  the 
student  from  the  plan  shown  in  Fig.  30.     The  measurements  nec- 
essary for  the  placing  of  the  columns  are  here  given,  and  further 
than  this  he  is  to  supply  their  proper  proportions  and  heights,  as 
well  as  the  necessary  details,  from  the  various  drawings  illustrat- 
ing this  order,  which  he  has  already  studied.     The  four-columned 
portico  on  the  front  is  crowned  with  a  pediment,  the  proportions  of 
which  must  be  ascertained  after  the  principle  shown  in  Plates 
XXXII   or  XXXIII.     This   plate   is  to  be  drawn  out  with  the 
border  lines  20"x28"  in  size. 

179.  The  proportions  and  general  scheme  for  laying  out  this 
problem  will  be  found  in  the  illustration  of  the  Ionic  Portico, 
Plate  XXXIII.     The  various  details  both  for  the  exterior  entabla- 
ture and  for  the  entablature  inside  the  temple,  as  well  as  the  archi- 
traves for  the  entrance  door,  have  already  been  given.     The  main 
facade  or  front  elevation  should  be  drawn  to  the  center  line  which 
passes  through  the  apex  of  the  pediment  and  through  the  axis  of 
the  doorway.     The  section  on  this  plate  may  be  omitted,  in  which 
particular  there  will  be  a  difference  between  this  problem  and  the 
problem  of  the  Ionic  Order.     In  the  plan  it  will  be  noticed  that 
half  has  been  shown  with  a  pedestal,  while  the  other  half  rests 
directly  on  a  platform  or  ;'stylobate."  It  would  be  better  to  draw  this 
order  with  a  pedestal  and  to  indicate  by  a  dotted  line  the  contour 
of  the   steps   leading  from   the   stylobate   to    the   ground.     The 
method  of  constructing  the  slope  of  the  pediment  has  already  been 
explained,  and  has  also  been  shown  on  Plate  XXXIII.     This  is 
essentially  the  same  problem  as  that  given  under  the  Ionic  Order, 
but  the  details  and  the  proportions,  it  will  be  seen,  are  distinctly 
different. 

PLATE  V. 

180.  The  Ionic  Temple,  with  portico,  shown  in  Plate  XXXIII 
is  to  be  drawn  at  the  same  size  as  the  last  plate,  20"  X28".    These 
two  drawings  when  finished  should  resemble  each  other,  save  that 


145 


70  THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 

in  the  preceding  exercise  the  full  facade  of  the  temple  is  shown, 
while  in  this  plate  of  the  Ionic  Order  a  half  facade  and  section  are 
to  be  combined  as  illustrated. 

181.  The  exterior  face  of  the  wall  is  formed  with  rusticated 
joints,  that  is  to  say,  the  joints  of  the  stones  form   triangular 
recesses  or  grooves  as  shown  at  C,  Plate  XXIX.     This  decorative 
scheme  is  at  the  same  time  a  logical  construction  because,  the 
angles  of  the  stones  being  obtuse,  the  edges  are  less  liable  to  bo 
broken  off. 

PLATE  W. 

182.  This  exercise  is  one  of  superposition  and,  as  the  same 
principle  may  be  applied  throughout  the  use  of  the  other  orders,  it 
is  believed  that  one  drawing  devoted  to  this  subject  will  be  amply 
sufficient.     The   student   is   required  to   reproduce    the  drawing 
shown  in  Fig.  23,  at  the  size  of  13"Xl8"  and  to  complete  in  his 
drawing  all  the  details  of  the  mouldings,  windows,  doorways,  etc., 
where  the  same  are  only  blocked  in  upon   this  figure.     The  con- 
siderations in  regard  to  superposition,  stated  in  the  text  in  para- 
graphs 116  to  132,  must  be  carefully  observed. 

PLATE  X. 

183.  The    subject    of   this   study,  Plate  X,    is    the    central 
part  of  the  facade  of  an  edifice;  assume  it  is- to  be  a  library  or 
public  building  of  a  similar  character.     The  Corinthian  Order  is 
raised  on  a  series  of  pedestals.     The  interior  level  of  the  edifice  is 
raised  above  the  exterior  ground  level  and  is  reached  by  a  stair- 
case which  will  prove  to  be  an  interesting  part  of  this  study.    This 
staircase  is  in  two  parts,  each  part  composed  of  two  flights  with  an 
intermediate  landing.     The  first  flight  has  twelve  risers  up  to  the 
landing;  the  second  has  eight  risers  up  to  the  top  of  a  wide  land- 
ing which  is  placed  before  the  entrance  and  on  the  axis  of  the 
edifice.   A  balustrade  with  two  pedestals,  on  which  might  be  placed 
statues  or  candelabras,  surmounts  the  supporting  wall  of  the  land- 
ing.    This  supporting  wall  is  finished  on  each  side  by  a  pillar  on 
which  is  placed  a  vase,  and  is  decorated  with  rusticated  joints. 
The  central  part,  corresponding  to  the  balustrade,  forms  a  projec- 
tion; a  niche  decorated  with  a  fountain  and  semi-circular  basin 


146 


TEE   ROMAN  ORDERS  71 


would  be  practicable  below  this  space.  The  entrance  door  of  the 
edifice  is  in  the  form  of  an  arch,  covered  with  a  pediment  of  the 
Ionic  Order.  The  Corinthian  columns  forming  the  corners  of  the 
projection  are  coupled,  that  is  to  say,  the  space  which  separates 
them  is  less  than  the  minimum  of  the  regular  intercolumniation. 

184.  The  student  is  required  to  design,  arrange  and  draw 
upon  a  plate,  the  size  of  20"  X28",  some  such  problem  as  is  shown  in 
Plate  XXXIV,  termed  an  Entrance  or  Monumental  Approach.  He 
may  use  any  orders  that  he  may  choose  for  this  problem,  but  should 
remember  to  maintain  a  proper  relation  between  them  in  scale  and 
size.  He  must  not  follow  exactly  this  arrangement  but  must  intro- 
duce STich  a  variety  in  the  plan  as  will  give  him  a  problem  in  ele- 
vation different  from  the  one  here  solved. 


147 


KETCH  -OF 


AS-VSED-Ef-GREKS 


GREEK  CONSTRUCTION. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS. 

PART  II 
THE  GREEK  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Of  ancient  buildings,  the  only  ones  which  have  come  down  to  us 
in  any  sort  of  preservation  are  the  temples  built  for  the  religious  wor- 
ship of  the  various  peoples.  All  their  domestic  architecture  was 
evidently  of  such  an  ephemeral  character  that  it  has  long  since  dis- 
appeared. It  is  therefore  evident  that  religion,  of  whatever  form,  has 
been  directly  responsible  for  the  growth  of  architecture  to  the  monu- 
mental style  to  which  it  has  since  attained,  as  these  nations  might  other- 


Fig.  31.    Egyptian  Rock-Cut  Temple. 

wise  never  have  invented  for  their  ordinary  shelters,  or  even  for  the 
palaces  of  their  kings  and  rulers,  the  impressive  forms  that  have  sur- 
vived. But,  more  than  this,  we  know  that  many  of  the  different  parts 
of  architecture  had  at  one  time  a  direct  religious  significance  and 
meaning.  Indeed,  there  seems  to  have  been  an  especial  pride  evinced 
in  adding  this  element  of  symbolism  to  the  architectural  forms  in 
common  use. 

The  Greek  temples,  in  which  the  Order  as  we  study  it  to-day  first 


149 


74 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


assumed  its  definite  form,  were  as  a  rule  the  simplest  and  most  elemen- 
tal kind  of  buildings — a  rectangle  longer  than  its  width,  with  two  roof 
planes  leaning  upon  each  other  and  forming  a  ridge  at  the  center  with 
a  gable  at  each  end. 

Derivation  of  Greek  Temple.  The  Temple  of  Diana  Propylsea  at 
Eleusis  is  an  instance  of  a  temple  that  shows  the  characteristics  of 
Greek  architecture  at  its  simplest  and  best.  The  elevation  and  plan 
of  the  porch,  as  well  as  the  details  of  its  ornament  and  construction, 

are  both  well  shown  in  the 

I  two  illustrating  plates.    The 

|  entrance  porch  (Plate 

XXXV),  indicates  a  close 
relationship  and  a  possibly 
direct  derivation  from  the 
Egyptian  rock-cut  temple 
(Fig.  31),  as  the  drawings 
show;  and  its  plan  (Fig.  32) 
displays  the  simplest  use  of 
the  Doric  column  in  antis,  or 
placed  between  the  two  pil- 

^•H  BIH  asters  (arite)that  are  formed 

on  the  end  of  the  side  walls 
A     A      A     j^ft  of  the  building. 

|  The  plain  outside  enclos- 

I  ing  wall  of  the  Egyptian  and 

the  early  Greek  temples  was 
soon  replaced  by  an  exterior 
row  of  columns,  and  the  stone  wall  placed  inside  these,  as  in  the  plan 
of  the  Temple  of  Theseus  (Fig.  33),  so  that  only  the  central  portion 
of  the  building  was  actually  enclosed. 

The  Greek  columned  temple  passed  rapidly  through  many 
stages  of  development  until  it  reached  in  the  Parthenon  its  highest 
type;  and  still  the  plan  (Fig.  34)  shows  how  little  it  has  changed  in 
its  essentials  from  the  small  Temple  of  Diana  Propylaea;  but  by  re- 
placing the  plain  exterior  side  and  rear  walls  by  a  single  or  double  row 
of  columns,  a  great  addition  has  been  made  to  the  impressive  exterior 
effect  of  the  whole. 

This  change  must  be  recalled  when  studying  the  entablature  of 


Fig.  32.    Plan  of  Temple  of  Diana  Propylasa 
at  Eleusis. 


150 


P1AN*  OF*  PORCH* 


PLATE  XXXV. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXXV.) 


151 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


75 


the  Greek  Doric  order,  as  it  will  help  to  explain  the  characteristics 
that  go  to  make  up  the  frieze  and  cornice,  if  we  remember  that  it  prob- 
ably fir.st  crowned  a  wall  and  not  a  colonnade. 

Development  of  the  Column.  In  these  Greek  temples,  wholly 
of  stone  construction  the  spacing  and  size  of  the  columns,  as  well  as 
the  development,  artistic  and  structural,  of  their  buildings  must  first 
have  been  determined  by  the  various  considerations  of  material.  As 
the  entire  Greek  system  of  architecture  was  based  upon  the  principle 


Fig.  33.    Plan  of  Temple  of 
Theseus,   Athens. 


Fig.  34.    Plan  of  Parthenon, 
Athens. 


of  the  lintel  (Frontispiece),  we  know  that  the  spacing  of  the  column  was 
governed  by  the  length  of  stone  blocks  which  they  were  able  to  quarry 
and  place  across  and  upon  the  columns  with  some  assurance  of  their 
supporting  the  weight  of  the  roof;  and  so  also  the  size  of  the  column 
itself  was  probably  first  determined  more  by  the  ease  of  quarrying  the 
blocks  of  stone  of  which  they  were  composed,  and  of  handling 
and  placing  them  in  position,  than  by  any  great  regard  for  their 


153 


76  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

artistic    effect,    although   this    undoubtedly    immediately    followed. 

In  the  Egyptian  and  Greek  temples,  the  column  developed 
peculiarities  of  form  that  were  evidently  demanded  by  the  higher 
artistic  cultivation  of  the  people.  In  the  early  examples  its  purpose 
had  been  purely  structural,  but  later  on  it  was  used  to  produce  an 
important  part  of  the  effect  of  the  building,  and  while  still  utilized 
for  structural  purposes,  it  was  treated  as  a  decorative  unit,  until  fi- 
nally the  column  (or  rather  the  Order)  becomes  the  very  basis  of 
Classic  architectural  design. 

Rules  of  Classic  Architecture,  Their  Use  and  Misuse.  Classic 
architecture  is  distinguished  from  the  later  and  more  transitory  styles, 
such  as  developed  during  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  periods,  by  the 
fact  that  the  various  forms  composing  its  parts  have  been  reduced  to 
a  fairly  definite  set  of  rules. 

No  other  style  of  architecture  has  been  so  consistently  developed  or 
has  so  well  stood  the  test  of  time.  But  it  must  always  be  remembered 
that  the  "rules"  to  which  we  have  now  reduced  the  Classic  Orders,  are 
not  to  be  considered  as  the  principles  upon  which  they  were  first  de- 
signed,, Rather,  these  rules  and  systems  of  proportioning  the  details 
of  the  Classic  Orders  of  architecture  have  been  invented  by  enthusiastic 
theorists  and  students  of  later  times  to  fit  the  old  examples.  The 
people  who  erected  these  ancient  monuments  understood  no  such 
rules,  but  rather  created  their  work  under  the  direct  influence  of  a 
vital  artistic  instinct  and  life  of  which  to-day  we  are  imitating  the 
mere  empty  forms.  It  must  be  thoroughly  realized,  therefore, 
that  in  reducing  the  Orders  to  the  understanding  of  individuals  of  a 
different  civilization  by  a  mere  "rule  of  thumb,"  much  of  their  subtlety 
and  true  spirit  must  have  been  lost,  and  that  the  rule  only  suggests  to 
us  a  mere  outline  or  general  idea  of  the  true  beauty  of  any  one  of  these 
Orders.  So,  while  we  may  not  hope  to  equal  or  approach  their  original 
perfection,  experience  and  constant  study  may  be  relied  upon  to  sug- 
gest the  principles  which  underlie  them  and  which  they  represent,  and 
so  to  help  us  to  produce  individual  refinements  and  variations  in  a 
modern  and  therefore  truly  vital  spirit. 

The  rules,  then,  which  we  follow  on  all  Classic  work  to-day  must 
be  considered  not  as  the  principles  which  governed  the  Greek  design- 
ers, but  as  those  which  we  have  invented  in  order  to  render  the  use  of 
the  Orders  easier  and  more  available  without  great  errors  of  proportion. 


154 


77 


It  is  quite  impossible  at  this  day  t<>  rxprrt  to  know  the  principles 
which  the  Classic  designers  actually  followed.  Every  year  there  are 
discovered  new  variations  from  the  supposed  rules  which  we  have 
applied.  It  is  now  known,  for  instance,  that  in  the  Parthenon,  at 
Athens,  every  supposedly  straight  line  was  laid  out  and  detennim-d 
on  some  flexible  principle  of  curves  proportioned,  probably,  solely 
with  regard  to  their  final  effect  upon  the  eye  of  the  observer. 

Superiority  of  Greek  Architecture.  Greek  civilization  developed 
refinement  and  subtlety  of  taste  in  architecture  to  a  point  that  ar- 
chitecture has  never  since  attained.  The  best  buildings  erected  by 
the  Greeks  combine  such  dissimilar  qualities  as  richness,  simplicity, 
magnitude  and  strength,  with  refinement  and  harmony. 

Contrary  to  the  general  impression  regarding  the  coldness  and 
strict  formalism  of  Greek  architecture,  probably  no  people  have  ever 
combined  Classic  architectural  forms  with  more  variety,  or  with 
more  insistence  upon  the  flexibility  and  interest  of  their  compositions. 

Refinement  of  Lines.  No  one  understood  more  thoroughly  than 
the  Greek  artists  the  abuses  and  defects  of  a  mathematical  system 
when  applied  to  a  vital  art.  They  were  compelled  to  progress  beyond 
this  limitation  before  they  succeeded  in  creating  an  architecture  that 
was  worthy  of  being  included  among  the  Fine  Arts;  while  of  no  period 
since  has  it  been  possible  to  give  its  architecture  front  rank  among 
them.  The  ancient  Greeks  considered  the  whole  effect  of  their 
architecture  largely  with  regard  to  the  eye  of  the  beholder,  and  this 
principle  seems  to  have  been  more  thoroughly  understood  by  them 
than  by  any  succeeding  nation  of  builders.  As  all  their  masses  and 
details  were  carefully  studied  with  this  optical  effect  in  mind,  so 
nearly  all  the  lines  in  their  work — both  horizontal  and  vertical — curve ; 
and  the  curves  were  studied  with  the  apparent  intention  of  counter- 
acting certain  awkward  optical  defects  which  might  be  occasioned 
by  the  use  of  a  mechanical  exactitude  in  straight  and  rectangular  lines. 

These  principles  the  Greeks  developed  and  refined  to  an  almost 
incalculable  degree,  while  their  application  was  broadened  until  they 
subtly  varied  almost  every  supposedly  straight  line.  The  student  of 
their  architecture  is  nowadays  very  careful  about  accepting  from 
casual  observation  of  the  effect  of  the  building,  the  apparent  means  by 
which  this  effect  was  produced. 

Lines  in  the  Parthenon.     In  the  Parthenon,  considered  as  one  of 


150 


78  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

the  best  examples  of  architecture  of  all  time,  late  discoveries  and 
more  exact  measurements  have  developed  the  fact  that  there  is  prob- 
ably not  an  exactly  straight  line  in  the  entire  structure.  The  most 
careful  study  was  given  to  every  part  of  this  beautiful  building,  from 
every  possible  point  of  observation.  In  the  front,  for  instance,  the 
stylobate  upon  which  the  columns  rest  is  slightly  higher  at  the  center 
than  at  each  end,  in  order  to  prevent  any  appearance  of  dropping  at 
this  point  as  would  have  been  inevitable  if  it  were  laid  out  on  a  per- 
fectly straight  line;  the  lines  of  the  entablature  were  in  turn  slightly 
raised  at  the  center  so  that  it  would  not  appear  to  sag;  the  highest  point, 
again,  is  not  exactly  in  the  center,  but  to  one  side,  where  the  building 
would  be  seen  by  anyone  approaching  from  the  Propylsea,  the  entrance 
to  the  Acropolis.  The  columns  of  the  colonnade  around  the  building 
are  all  slightly  out  of  the  perpendicular;  they  incline  or  lean  back  to- 
ward the  center,  so  that  the  axes,  if  prolonged  to  a  long  distance  above 
the  building,  would  all  finally  meet  at  one  vanishing  point.  This  is 
true  in  all  its  meanings.  Not  only  does  the  entire  colonnade  along  the 
side,  for  instance,  lean  back  in  plane  toward  the  parallel  center  line 
of  the  building  along  the  ridge  of  the  roof,  but  the  columns,  as  they 
approach  the  two  ends  of  the  building,  lean  back  toward  the  center 
line  of  the  respective  elevations.  This  is  true  on  all  four  sides  of  the 
building,  in  order  to  have  the  sloping  lines  of  the  columns  correctly 
intersect  at  each  angle.  By  referring  to  the  cuts  this  will  be  made 
more  clear.  Fig.  35  shows  two  perpendicular  sections  through  the 
colonnade,  with  the  column  placed  beyond  the  face  of  the  enclosing 
wall  of  the  building.  The  column  at  the  left  is  shown  with  its  axis 
perpendicular  and  at  right  angles  to  a  horizontal  line.  This  is  the  way 
the  Greeks  did  not  use  the  column.  At  the  right  is  shown  a  column 
employed  in  their  customary  manner.  Here  the  dotted  line  dropped 
from  the  inside  of  the  architrave  of  the  crowning  entablature  discloses 
the  fact  that  the  axis  of  the  column  is  sloping  back  at  the  top  toward 
the  enclosing  interior  wall  of  the  building;  while  the  face  of  the  frieze 
and  entablature  above  also  follows,  though  more  slightly,  this  same 
gradual  slope.  In  this  example  the  taper  of  the  column  is  exaggerated 
in  order  to  emphasize  the  theory  of  its  arrangement. 

Fig.  36  is  a  plan  of  the  frieze  of  the  Greek  Doric  Order,  showing 
the  columns  placed  beneath  it  under  every  alternate  triglyph.  This 
drawing  indicates  the  plans  of  the  columns  at  the  neck  and  base  in 


156 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


79 


relation  to  each  other,  and  discloses  the  fact  that  their  centers,  while 
on  a  perpendicular  line  in  front  elevation,  are  not  directly  over  each 
other  in  plan,  the  center  of  the  column  at  the  neck  being  placed  behind 
the  center  at  the  base  in  order  to  produce  the  effect  shown  at  the  right 
in  Fig.  35.  At  the  corner,  the  center  of  the  column  at  the  neck  is  nec- 
essarily slanted  in  on  each  elevation,  as  is  shown  on  this  plan.  This 
will  indicate  the  first  stage  of  the 
development  of  this  theoretical 
system,  which  is  shown  more 
clearly  in  Fig.  37,  where  the  plan 
of  the  six-columned  Greek  Doric 
porch  illustrates  the  complete 
working  out  of  this  theory.  Here 
we  find  that  each  column  not  only 
leans  back  from  the  face  of  the 
building,  but  also  that  it  is  shown 
inclined  toward  the  center  point 
as  well,  thus  equalizing  this  gradu- 
al inclination  of  the  columns  from 
the  one  at  the  corner  to  the  cen- 
ter of  any  facade  of  the  building, 
where,  if  a  column  were  placed,  it 
would  be  directly  perpendicular  Fig- 35'  sections  Through  the  colonnade 

•>    r  of  a  Greek  Doric  Order. 

in  elevation  while  its  neck  would 

still  incline  back  from  the  face  of  the  building.  The  almost  intangible 
variation  of  these  columns  from  the  perpendicular  was  made  in  order 
that  they  would  not  appear  to  spread  outward  at  the  top,  and  that  at 
the  same  time  the  building  would  present,  in  its  pyramidal  form,  a 

more  solid  and  enduring 
aspect. 

Refinement  in  Detail. 
We  have  already  re- 
marked that  with  the 
progress  of  architecture 
the  column  takes  pro- 
Fig.  36.  Plan  of  Frieze  of  Greek  Doric  Order.  portions  more  elegant, 

and  the  entablature  diminishes  in  height.     We  shall  also  find  that 


157 


80 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


at  the  same  time  the  echinus  of  the  capital — flattened  in  the  old 
temples  and  compressed  under  the  weight  of  the  entablature — is 
straightened  and  supports  with  more  firmness  the  abacus.  The 
mouldings  become  less  brutal;  the  column  at  the  angle  receives  a 
diameter  a  little  larger  than  belongs  to  the  other  columns;  the  rec- 
tangular shape  which  has  been  taken  as  the  form  of  the  edifice 
becomes  delicately  pyramidal,  until  we  arrive  at  such  admirable  ex- 
examples  as  the  Temple  of  ^Egina,  the  Propylaea,  the  Theseum,  and 
the  Parthenon. 


Fig.  37.    Plan  of  Six-Columned  Greek  Doric  Porch. 

The  Greek  Doric  Capital.  The  echinus  moulding  is  considered 
as  the  most  distinctive  of  all  the  sections  invented  by  the  Greeks; 
and,  as  used  in  the  Doric  capital,  it  received  a  character  that  does 
not  pertain  to  it  when  used  in  any  other  position.  In  the  earlier 
examples  its  outlines  will  be  found  more  rounding  in  section  than 
in  the  later  ones  where  it  attains  to  a  beautifully  studied  eccentric 
curve,  neither  flat  enough  to  be  hard,  nor  full  enough  to  be  weak  in 
effect,  until  in  the  Parthenon  and  Tholos  of  Epidauros  it  is  refined  to 
an  almost  straight  line.  The  compared  sections  of  capitals  from 
Corinth,  Psestum,  the  Temple  of  Concord  at  Agrigentum,  and  the 
Parthenon  at  Athens,  (shown  in  Fig.  38),  illustrate  this  progress.  The 
various  sections  of  this  cap  moulding,  from  the  early,  fuller,  rounder 
examples  where  it  spreads  out  far  beyond  the  shaft,  along  with  the 
different  ways  of  expressing  the  variously  termed  annulets  or  fillets 
that  separate  this  moulding  from  the  fluted  necking  below,  show  how 
carefully  the  Greek  sculptors  experimented  in  order  to  obtain  just  the 
effect  that  they  desired.  In  the  later  periods  of  Greek  architecture 
the  outline  of  this  echinus  moulding  is  as  simple,  delicate,  and  beauti- 
ful as  any  detail  that  the  Greeks  have  made;  and  in  the  best  examples 
it  may  be  considered  typical  of  the  refinement  and  proportions  of  their 
architecture.  The  character  of  this  section,showing  the  echinus  mould  - 


158 


o§ 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


81 


ing  itself  in  proportion  to  the 
abacus,  the  character  of  the 
fillets  that  divide  it  from  the 
fluted  necking,  and  the  various 
sections  of  the  recesses  taking 
the  place  of  an  astragal  that 
separate  it  from  the  shaft,  are 
shown  more  fully  in  Figs.  39, 
40,  41,  42,  43  and  44.  These 
same  illustrations  will  indicate 
the  relations  of  the  column 
diameter  at  the  neck  and  base. 
But,  while  interesting  in  trac- 
ing the  development  of  the 
column,  none  of  the  examples 
are  so  perfect  or  so  well  worthy 
of  reproduction  as  that  used 
in  the  Parthenon,  shown  at  a 
larger  size  in  Plate  XXXVII. 

It  is  also  generally  con- 
ceded that  the  individual  parts 
of  Greek  architecture  appear 
to  best  advantage  when  the 
general  form  of  the  building 
itself  is  Greek.  Indeed,  the 
beautiful  flat  curves  and 
mouldings  of  this  style  are 
quite  at  variance  with  anything 
else  than  the  low  pediment, 
flat  roof,  and  general  propor- 
tions of  the  old  Greek  temple 
buildings. 

Inclination  of  the  Roof  in 
Greek  and  Roman  Temples. 
The  very  form  of  roof  used  on 
these  Greek  temples,  giving  a 
gable  or  pediment  at  each  end, 
enclosing  a  tympanum  which 


•e  a 

be      o 


II 


a  (a 

*  1 

«  a 

»  8 


159 


82 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


was  generally  decorated  with  sculpture,  is  in  its  slope,  simplicity 
and  proportions  characteristic  of  their  architectural  practice.  The 
inclination  of  these  roofs  is  very  slight.  In  the  Temple  of  the 
Erechtheum  it  is  fifteen  and  one-half  degrees;  in  the  Temple  of 
Theseus  (Fig.  51)  it  is  fifteen  degrees;  in  the  Parthenon  (Fig.  45), 
it  is  sixteen  degrees;  while  the  pediment  of  the  Propylsea  (Fig.  88) 


c—  aa-3//4_ 


rv 


.31 


Fig.  39. 

has  an  inclination  of  fourteen  and  one-half  degrees.  It  may  be 
interesting  to  mention,  .in  this  connection,  that  in  Roman  examples 
this  inclination  is  steeper.  Thus,  in  the  pediment  of  Septimus 
Severus  it  is  twenty-two  degrees;  in  the  Temple  of  Concord 
and  Mars  Ultor,  twenty-three  and  one-half  degrees ;  and  in  the  Temple 
of  Fortuna  Virilis,  and  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  twenty-four  degrees. 


160 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


83 


The  Value  of  the  "  Order."  The  "Order"  may  be  used  as  the 
most  tangible  means  of  getting  at  the  essential  parts  of  the  Greek 
style,  and  a  study  of  its  forms  cannot  fail  to  help  towards  the  appre- 
ciation of  the  beauty  of  Greek  architecture  as  a  whole. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  realize  that  the  Order  is  not  the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  the  study  of  Greek  architecture.  The  Greek  building, 


BASILICA- PAESTW 


Fig.  40. 

in  all  its  beauty  of  proportion,  existed  long  before  the  Order  was  devel- 
oped to  the  point  where  we  study  it  to-day.  The  form  of  roof  used 
on  the  Greek  temples  performs,  as  we  have  already  seen,  a  much  more 
important  part  in  producing  their  general  effect;  and  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  these  forms  accustoms  the  eye  to  refinements  which 


161 


84 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


might  otherwise  not  be  apprehended.     Especially  is  this  so  of  the 
ancient  Greek  structures. 


Fig.  41. 

The  Orders,  as  we  have  them  to-day,  are  derived  from  the  meas- 
urements of  existing  remains  of  Classic  Greek  and  Roman  mon- 


162 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


85 


uments.  Aside  from  purposes  of  actual  reproduction  and  their  whole 
or  partial  use  on  modern  buildings,  they  are  most  valuable  as  ideal 
types  from  which  the  proportions  of  old  and  new  work  may  be  studied 
and  estimated. 

Modern  practice  and  theory  do  not  give  to  the  Orders  the  impor- 


"H 


Fig.  42. 

tance  which  they  have  heretofore  generally  received.  Yet  these  forms 
have  come  down  to  us  with  more  authority  than  any  other  single  units 
employed  in  architectural  practice.  To  comprehend  thoroughly 'the 
Orders,  their  purposes  and  adaptability  to  modern  work/it  is  important 
to  know  the  conditions  under  which  they  were  first  developed,  so  that 


163 


86 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


we  must  study  their  use  in  old  and  Classic  work — where  they  were  a 
much  more  important  factor  in  the  direct  evolution  of  architecture 
than  now  in  our  climate,  and  under  the  social  conditions  of  to-day. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  derivation  and  historical  growth  of 


PRQPYIA&VAKNS 


Fig.  43. 

the  Orders  should  be  understood,  and  their  use  should  not  be  attempted 
until  their  forms  and  proportions  have  been  thoroughly  studied. 
Then,  when  intelligently  used,  they  may  indeed  become  a  vital  and 
consistent  part  of  our  modern  architecture  and  life. 


164 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


87 


In  reproducing  any  of  the  Greek  Orders  the  old  examples  should 
be  followed  as  closely  as  possible,  as  their  proportions  have  been  so 
well  defined  by  time  and  precedent  that  at  this  day  these  forms  should 
be  considered  as  definite.  This  stricture  is  emphasized  by  the  fact 
that,  since  the  Roman  Orders  were  defined,  the  Greek  style  of  ar- 


-k 


Fig.  44. 

chitecture  has  been  but  little  used,  and  no  further  developed;  and  in 
the  few  instances  where  it  has  been  revived  it  was  apparently  rec- 
ognized that  any  use  of  the  details  or  parts  of  Greek  architecture 
should  be  modeled  as  exactly  as  possible  on  the  actual  precedents 
furnished  by  old  Greek  work. 


165 


1 


166 


Restored  Model  of  Corner  of  Parthenon  at      Miens. 
Showing  use  of  Greek  Doric  Order  and  tho  relation  of  its  various  parts. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


89 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  GREEK  ORDER. 

The  Greek  "Order"  is  an  architectural  composition  resulting 
from  the  combination  of  a  platform  or  Stylobate,  a  Column,  and  an 
Entablature.  A  pedestal  is  not  employed  with  the  Greek  column. 
The  platform,  or  stylobate,  consists  of  a  plain  mass  of  greater  or  lesser 
height,  upon  which  the  columns  rest.  In  the  Doric  Order,  however, 
the  stylobate  generally  consists  of 
three  high  steps  upon  which  are 
set  the  columns.  The  entabla- 
ture is  divided  into  Architrave  or 
Epistyle,  Frieze,  and  Cornice. 

There  are  three  Greek  or- 
ers: 

(1)  The    Doric    Order,    in 
which  the    capital    is    composed 
solely  of  mouldings.       (See  Fig. 

50.)" 

(2)  The  Ionic   Order,  in 
which  the   capital    is    composed 
of  mouldings  enriched  with  carv- 
ing, and  with  the  addition  of  long 
scrolls  called  Volutes. 

(3)  The  Corinthian  Order, 
in  which  the  capital  is  composed 
of  mouldings,  volutes,  and  leaf- 
age. 

The  Caryatid  and  Persic 
Orders,  in  which  the  entablature 
is  carried  by  sculptured  figures 
instead  of  by  columns,  are  not 
specified  as  separate  orders,  but 
should  not  be  overlooked. 

There  are  other  distinguishing  characteristics,  but  the  capital  is 
perhaps  the  most  notable. 

The  column,,  so  important  a  part  of  the  order,  is  itself  a  growth  of 
much  earlier  times.  Its  origin  is  doubtful  and  probably  it  developed 
variously  in  different  places  at  nearly  simultaneous  periods. 


Fig.  46.    Moulding  Outlines. 


167 


90 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


Origin  of  the  Entasis  of  the  Column.  The  great  difference  be- 
tween the  width  at  neck  and  base  of  the  Greek  column  in  the  early 
examples  indicates  in  part  its  experimental  stages  and  in  part  its 
derivation  from  the  stone  wall  or  pier;  while  its  outline  certainly  sug- 
gests more  the  "batter"  or  slope  of  a  pylon  or  wall  than  the  entasis 

of  a  column.  We  shall  find,  in  taking 
up  the  Greek  Doric  Orders  more  in 
detail,  still  other  evidences  pointing  in 
the  same  direction. 

The  Flutings  and  their  Origin. 
The  shafts  or  columns  are  frequently 
divided  into  flutings.  In  the  Doric 
Order  these  flutings  are,  in  plan,  short 
segments  of  a  circle  or  of  an  ellipse, 
and  intersect  in  a  sharp,  raised  edge, 
or  arris;  but  in  the  Ionic  and  the 
Corinthian  Orders  the  flutings  are  al- 
most half  circles  in  plan,  and  are  sepa- 
rated, not  by  a  mere  arris,  but  by  a 
fillet  or  an  appreciable  portion  of  the 
shaft  itself,  as  at  F  in  Fig.  49. 

In  the  earliest  rock-cut  temples, 
pylons  or  square  piers  (as  shown  at  A, 
Fig.  47)  were  probably  left  to  support 
the  roof,  as  may  be  seen  to-day  in 
India  and  Central  America.  These 
piers  were  sometimes  elaborately  carv- 
ed and  decorated  in  panels  on  their 
four  sides. 

The  fluting  was  probably  first  sug- 
gested by  the  undue  amount  of  wear 
on  the  corner  angle,  and  this  angle  was 
chamfered  off,  as  at  B  in  the  same 
figure,  first  slightly  and  afterward  so  as  to  make  the  pier  of  eight 
equal  faces  or  sides.  These  chamfers  extended  from  a  point  above 
a  person's  head  and  near  the  top  of  the  pier,  down  to  the  floor, 
as  at  A  or  B  in  Fig.  48.  Later  on  the  eight  faces  were  made  into  six- 
teen by  the  same  simple  process  of  dressing  down  the  corners  (C, 


Fig.  47.    Plans  showing  Develop- 
ment of  Doric  Columns. 


168 


DETAILS -O 


PLATE  XXXVI. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXXVI.) 


169 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDKKS 


91 


Fig.  47);  and  the  top  of  the  pier  was  perhaps  left  square  (C,  Fig.  48), 
as  the  earlier  form  suggested. 

But  it  was  now  found  that  the  angles  of  the  comers  were  so  ob- 
tuse that  they  were  hardly  distinguishable  (A,  Fig.  49) ;  and  it  was 
an  easy  further  step  to  sharpen  and  emphasize  these  corners  by  hol- 
lowing out  the  flat  surface,  at  first  very  slightly  (B,  Fig.  49). 

It  must  be  remembered  that  this  is  the  development  of  a  rock  or 
stone-cut  pier  that  we  are  tracing,  and  that  the  instinct  of  the  artisan 
was  to  preserve  the  distinctive  feature,  that  of  the  angle  or  corner, 
disregarding  at  first  an  easier  solution — that  of  making  it  circular 


C 


Fig.  48.    Elevations  Showing  Development  of  Doric  Columns. 

in  plan.  We  find  instances  of  just  this  stage  of  development 
in  some  of  the  rock-cut  tombs  at  Beni-Hassan  in  Egypt,  where  two 
columns  of  a  form  similar  to  that  just  described  were  used  in  antis 
(Fig.  31). 

The  process  of  chamfering  off  the  corner  angles  would  leave  us 
with  a  pier  of  sixteen  sides,  while  the  Greeks  adopted  the  number 
of  twenty  for  the  Doric  work  of  the  best  periods.  This  was  un- 
doubtedly after  due  experimentation,  when  it  was  found  that  six- 
teen flutes  were  too  coarse  for  the  best  effect.  At  Pa5stum  we  find 
evidences  of  this  process.  There,  in  the  Great  Temple,  the  exterior 


171 


92 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


/•XXXX^XXX/Xy^l 


Order  of  very  large  columns  has  twenty-four  flutes.  The  interior 
lower  Order  has  twenty,  and  the  upper  Order  sixteen  flutes,  evidently 
proportioned  with  regard  to  the  size  and  girth  of  the  whole  of  the 
column  quite  as  much  as  to  their  distance  from  the  eye. 

In  some  such  way  as  this  was  developed  the  character  of  the  fluting 

and  capital  of  the  Greek  Doric 
column.  By  referring  to  Fig.  48 
again,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
outline  of  the  pier  shown  at  A 
suggests  more  the  outline  of  the 
capital  formed  of  an  echinus  and 
abacus,  as  in  the  later  examples, 
than  do  the  next  successive  stages, 
B  and  C. 

The  further  growth  of  the 
fl  iting  is  shown  in  Fig.  49.  At 
C  is  indicated  a  section  of  greater 
depth  and  decision.  In  D  we 
find  that  three  circles  are  em- 
ployed to  get  the  effect,  one  of 
large  radius  for  the  flat  center 
sweep,  and  at  either  end  one  of 
short  radius,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
sharp  corner  edge,  or  arris,  at  the 
meeting  of  the  flutings.  This 
presages  the  appearance  of  the 
fillet  separating  the  flutings,  al- 
though this  character  is  after- 
wards relegated  to  the  second 
Order,  the  Ionic. 

The  presumption  is  that  the 
flutes  were  finished  in  place  at 
the  time  the  building  was  constructed.  There  are  certain  buildings 
which  seems  to  prove  this  theory,  such  as  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delos,  where  the  channels  are  begun  at  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  the 
shaft  and  left  unfinished. 

Monoliths  are  rare  in  Greek  architecture,  and  the  cylinder  or 


Fig.  49.    Development  of  Column  Fluting. 


172 


a  6 


h 

8 


g 

o 


j<-  -a  t  -t— 

|>T7l-*--^^i.l+-.M 


CI  9 


r 


(*-?«-*-•  -z  fr-  -t-l^  -+  of  M 

|> —     a  z  — * — 


-^f-     a-%T 
iwttT*      >.  *•    -i^> 


'III 

;~"si 


(HI 

Ufi2 


<J7 


I 


I 


a-6- 


173 


94 


shaft  of  the  column  is  generally  formed  of  a  series  of  courses  or  drums, 
placed  one  above  the  other. 

The  flutings  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Orders  are  generally 
twenty-four  in  number;  each  flute  is  separated  by  a  small  fillet,  about 
one-third,  or  less,  the  width  of  the  flute  itself,  which  is  practically  a 
semicircle  in  section  (F,  Fig.  49).  The  shallow  Doric  flutings  with 
sharp  points  or  arrises  between  them,  radically  different  from  these 
semicircular  flutings,  should  be  considered  as  a  distinctive  feature  of 
the  Greek  Doric  column.  They  are  invariably  used  in  modern  prac- 
tice on  any  fluted  example  of  this  Order,  although  the  Ionic  system  of 
fluting  may  sometimes  be  rightly  used  with  the  Roman  Doric  Order. 

Comparison  of  Greek  and  Roman  Orders.  Reference  to  the 
cut  entitled  "Parallel  of  the  Orders"  (Fig.  50)  will  give  more  plainly 
the  general  proportions  of  the  Greek  Orders,  and  show  something  of 
the  difference  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  examples  in  the  use  of 
the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  columns.  It  may  be  understood 
that  all  the  plates  given  as  "Orders,"  when  not  specifically  named,  are 
intended  as  representative  examples  of  each  Order,  of  which  in  reality 
there  may  be  many  widely  different  existing  remains.  In  Fig.  50, 
the  types  of  Greek  Orders  of  architecture  are  as  taken  from  Asher 
Benjamin ;  and  the  Roman  Orders  are  those  as  given  by  Vignola.  It  is 
readily  seen  from  this  figure  that  the  so-called  Roman  Doric,  Ionic,  and 
Corinthian  columns  were  derived  from  the  earlier  Greek  forms,  and 
that  the  Roman  variety  of  each  style  is  a  comparatively  direct 
growth  from  the  original,  even  though  it  varies  from  it  in  many 
essentials. 

System  of  Measurement  for  the  "Order."  It  is  necessary,  in 
order  to  arrive  at  a  proper  comparison  of  the  Order,  to  adopt  a  general 
Unit  of  Measurement,  which  will  be  the  Diameter  of  the  column  at 
the  base,  this  diameter,  in  the  Greek  Orders,  being  divided  into  sixty 
parts,  called  Minutes,  which  are  as  often  used  to  form  two  Modules 
of  30  Parts  each.  The  term  "diameter"  when  used  as  a  unit  of 
measurement,  always  refers  to  the  diameter  through  the  bottom  of  the 
column  or  shaft  directly  above  the  mouldings  at  the  base. 

The  diameter  of  the  Roman  column  is  divided  into  two  modules 
as  a  unit  of  measurement.  The  Roman  module  is  subdivided  into 
twelve  parts  for  the  Doric  Order,  and  eighteen  parts  for  the  Ionic  and 
Corinthian  Orders.  Thus  each  module  is  equal  to  one-half  a  diameter ; 


174 


g3 

Jf  o 

3  $ 

il 


O    Pi 

0 


|  g 


STUDY  OF  THK  ORDERS  05 


and  two  modules  in  the  Roman  Order  is  the  same  unit  as  the  diameter 
of  sixty  minutes  in  the  Greek. 

At  the  right  of  the  Roman  and  at  the  left  of  the  Greek  Orders  on 
Fig.  50,  are  shown  lines  marked  for  divisions  in  height,  these  divi- 
sions being  multiples  of  the  diameters  at  the  base  of  the  columns. 
The  three  Roman  Orders  given  are  all  of  the  same  diameter;  and  the 
three  Greek  columns,  while  larger  at  the  base  than  the  Roman  ex- 
amples, are  also  each  of  the  same  diameter.  This  plate,  accordingly, 
indicates  the  comparative  height,  to  one  another,  of  each  of  the  three 
Orders.  In  the  Greek  Orders,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  pedestal  is 
omitted  as  consistently  as  it  is  included  in  the  Roman  examples. 
After  briefly  describing  the  three  type-examples  of  the  Greek  Orders 
shown  in  this  plate,  they  will  each  be  examined  and  illustrated  more 
particularly. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  Doric  Order  is  by  far  the  heaviest  in 
both  sets  of  examples.  The  height  of  the  Doric  columns  is  seven 
diameters.  Its  cap,  above  the  upper  line  of  necking,  is  thirty 
minutes,  or  one-half  a  diameter.  The  height  of  the  entablature  is  two 
diameters,  the  architrave  being  forty-two  minutes  and  the  cornice 
thirty-six  minutes  in  height.  In  the  Greek  Doric,  the  architrave  and 
frieze  are  each  about  three-fourths  the  diameter  in  height,  the  whole 
entablature  being  therefore  about  two  diameters  high. 

The  Greek  Ionic  column  is  nine  diameters  in  height,  with  a  base 
twenty-five  minutes  and  capital  twenty-eight  and  one-half  minutes 
high.  .The  entablature  is  two  diameters  high,  consisting  of  an  archi- 
trave of  forty-five  minutes,  frieze  of  forty-three  minutes,  and  cornice 
thirty-two  minutes  in  height. 

The  Greek  Corinthian  column  is  ten  diameters  in  height,  the  base 
twenty-five  and  the  cap  seventy  minutes  high ;  the  entablature  is  two 
and  one-fourth  diameters  high,  with  an  architrave  of  forty-three 
minutes,  the  frieze  of  forty  minutes,  and  the  cornice  of  fifty-two 
minutes  in  height. 

The  projection  of  the  cornices  varies,  in  the  Doric  being  thirty- 
three  minutes,  in  the  Ionic  thirty-four  minutes,  and  in  the  Corinthian 
forty-four  minutes. 

THE  DORIC  ORDER. 

We  find  in  Egypt,  at  the  catacombs  of  Beni-Hassan,  the  rough, 
primitive  type  of  the  Doric  Order;  and  it  may  be  from  here  that  the 


175 


96  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


Greeks  received  their  inspiration.  It  is  sufficient  to  compare  the 
design  of  the  column  at  Beni-Hassan,  which  we  may  call  pro-Doric 
(Fig.31),  with  a  primitive  form  of  the  Greek  Doric  column — one 
taken  from  the  Temple  of  Corinth,  (Fig.  39)  for  example — in  order 
to  make  plain  the  reasons  for  this  allegation.  It  is  true  that, 
even  if  the  Greeks  borrowed  the  idea  of  the  Doric  Order  from  the 
Egyptians,  they  transformed  it  by  the  changes  they  made  until  it  was 
glorified  into  a  type  almost  absolutely  original. 

The  oldest  and  heaviest  of  the  three  Greek  Orders  was  the  Doric, 
which  was  also,  so  far  as  the  column  itself  was  concerned,  the  simplest 
of  them  all.  It  combines  at  the  same  time  solidity  and  strength  with 
what  proved  to  be  the  most  subtle  and  delicate  refinements  of  outline 
that  architecture  has  known.  This  Order  may  be  considered  as  rep- 
resenting, par  excellence,  the  best  efforts  of  the  Greek  builders.  It  is 
certainly  representative  of  the  most  perfect  expression  of  the  Greek 
spirit,  which  we  find  is  exemplified  even  by  the  curve  of  the  echinus 
used  in  the  capital  of  this  Order. 

The  Grecian  Doric  Order,  so  far  as  the  column  is  concerned,  was 
beautifully  simple,  and,  as  used  by  the  Classic  builders,  attained  a 
great  effect  of  grandeur  and  dignity.  This  is  well  shown  in  the  Temple 
of  Theseus,  the  most  complete  remains  of  a  Greek  Doric  temple, 
which  is  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  51).  As  we  have  seen  was 
natural  from  its  derivation,  no  base  was  used  with  this  column.  The 
thickness  of  its  shaft  in  comparison  with  its  height,  along  with  the 
necessary  narrow  spacing  of  the  columns,  did  not  seem  to  require  any 
such  feature. 

Differences  in  the  Examples  of  the  Doric  Order.  The  great 
differences  which  we  find  in  the  general  proportions  and  parts  of  the 
existing  examples  of  the  Doric  Order,  plainly  show  the  experiments  of 
the  Greek  artists  in  their  endeavor  to  arrive  at  an  ideal,  or  even  a 
satisfactory,  type  form.  Thus  we  find  that  the  height  of  the  column 
itself  varies  from  about  four  and  one-half  diameters  to  seven  diameters, 
while  the  diameter  at  the  top  of  the  shaft  varies  from  six-tenths  to 
eight  and  one-quarter  tenths  of  the  diameter  at  the  base.  In  general, 
we  find  that  in  the  earlier  examples  the  columns  are  much  thicker  in 
proportion  to  their  height,  and  that  there  was  also  much  more  differ- 
ence between  the  diameter  at  the  base  and  at  the  neck  than  exists  in 
those  of  a  later  date. 


176 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


Order  of  the  Parthenon.  The  Order  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens 
(Fig.  45,  and  Plate  XXXVII)  is  held  to  be  the  most  beautiful  example 
of  the  Doric  Order.  The  columns,  without  a  base,  rest  immediately 
upon  a  stylobate  consisting  of  three  high  steps  of  Pentelic  marble. 
The  shaft,  slightly  swelling,  has  twenty  shallow  flutings,  narrowing 
gradually  from  bottom  to  top,  as  does  the  column  itself,  and  separated 
by  sharp  edges,  or  arrises.  The  column,  too,  is  most  perfect  in  diam- 
eter relation  to  height. 

In  the  Parthenon  the  columns  are  five  and  a-half  diameters,  or 
eleven  modules,  in  height.  These  proportions  are  also  those  of  the 
columns  of  the  Temple  of  Theseus  and  the  Doric  columns  in  the 
Propylsea  or  entrance  to  the  Acropolis  at  Athens;  but  not  all  the  ex- 
amples of  the  Greek  Doric  present  columns  of  the  same  proportions. 

Gradual  Changes  in  the  Proportions  of  the  Doric  Order.  We  find 
that,  beginning  with  the  seventh  century  B.  C.,  when  the  column  shaft 
was  still  clumsy  and  uncouth,  the  proportions  afterwards  grow  gradu- 
ally more  elegant;  and,  at  the  same  time  that  the  columns  tend  to- 
wards a  form  more  slender,  the  entablature  grows  less  heavy. 

Among  the  temple  buildings,  the  most  ancient  are  also  the  crudest. 
The  height  of  the  entablature  is  then  about  two-fifths  that  of  the  column. 
Afterwards,  as  in  the  Temple  of  Athena  on  the  island  of  ^Egina,  the 
Propylsea,  the  Temple  of  Theseus,  and  the  Parthenon,  the  entablatures 
are  about  one-third  the  height  of  the  column ;  while  in  the  Temple  of 
Zeus  at  Nemea,  which  belongs  to  the  commencement  of  the  decadence, 
the  entablature  height  is  only  a  quarter  of  the  column  height. 

Column  Entasis.  In  these  Orders,  the  upper  diameter  is  made 
quite  considerably  less  than  the  lower  diameter,  and  the  column 
is  "tapered"  or  "swelled"  in  outline.  It  thus  represents  an  inclined 
profile  with  an  outline  tapering  or  swelling  from  the  lower  to 
the  upper  diameter.  This  profile  is  generally  given  a  form  slightly 
curved,  due  to  an  "entasis"  of  the  middle  part,  but  sometimes  the 
two  diameters  are  joined  by  a  straight  line.  The  smaller  and  larger 
diameters,  although  variable,  have  a  certain  relation  that  is  followed 
in  every  case,  changing  the  outline  of  the  column  and  rendering  it 
more  or  less  curved. 

In  the  old  Temple  of  Corinth,  the  diminution  of  the  upper  part 
equals  one-fourth  a  diameter;  in  the  Temple  of  Poseidon  at  Psestum, 
it  is  one-third;  in  the  Temple  of  Theseus,  the  Parthenon,  and  the 


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§  I 

j  6 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


99 


Temple  of  Zeus,  two-ninths;  in  the  Temple    of    Zeus  at    Nemea, 
one-fifth;  and  in  the  Portico  of  Philip  one-sixth. 

To  trace  the  growth  and  gradual  refinement  of  the  proportions 
of  the  first  Greek  Order,  it  is  helpful  to  have  an  idea  of  the  comparative 
date  and  column  dimensions  of  the  best  known  examples;  and  for  this 
purpose  it  becomes  necessary  to  revert  to  the  unit  of  the  measure — the 
diameter  of  the  columns  at  the  base. 
DATES  AND  COLUMN  DIMENSIONS  OF  GREEK  DO  It  1C  TEMPLES. 


DATE 


7th  century 

B.  C. 
End  of  the 

7th  century 
6th  century 

6th  century 
6th  century 
6th  century 

6th  century 

6th  century 
6th  century 
5th  century 
5th  century 
5th  century 
5th  century 


TEMPLE 


Old  Temple  of  Corinth 
Old  Temple  of  Selinus 

The   most  recent    Temple  at 

Selinus 

Temple  of  Zeus,  Selinus 
Temple  of  Artemis,  Syracuse 
Temple    of   St.    Mary  of    the 

Column,  Syracuse 
Grand    Temple    of    Poseidon, 

Paestum 

Temple  of  Demeter,  Paestum 
Temple  of  Zeus,  Olympus 
Temple  of  Athena,  ^Egina 
Temple  of  Theseus,  Athens 
The  Propylrea,  Athens 
The  Parthenon,  Athens 


COLUMN  DIMENSIONS 

Column  not  quite  4  diame- 
ters in  height 
Column  4J  diameters 

Column  4J  diameters 

Column  4§  diameters 
Column  4 1  diameters 
Column  a  little  less  than  5 

diameters. 
Column  4J  diameters 

Column  4i  diameters 
Column  42  diameters 
Column  5|  diameters 
Column  5J  diameters 
Column  5£  diameters 
Column  5f  diameters 


Evidently  the  builders  recognized  that  the  effect  produced  by 
these  first  columns  was  stumpy  and  ungraceful.  They  found  that 
they  were  too  short  for  their  height,  that  the  diameter  at  the  neck  was 
much  too  small  in  proportion  to  that  at  the  base,  and  that  the  first  used 
mouldings  were  uncouth ;  and  these  faults  they  apparently  set  them- 
selves to  rectify  in  succeeding  examples.  So  far  as  we  can  trace  the 
dates  of  the  Greek  temple  ruins — allowing,  of  course,  for  the  difference 
in  locality,  which  must  sometimes  have  prevented  the  study,  by  the 
builders,  of  examples  in  another  country — the  proportions  of  the 
Doric  Order  show  a  continuous  progress  toward  the  perfection  to  which 
it  finally  attained  in  the  Golden  or  Periclean  Age,  the  fifth  century 
before  Christ. 

Theory  of  Derivation  of  Doric  Order  from  Wooden  Construction. 
The  details  of  the  Doric  Order,  and  especially  of  the  entablature, 
are  supposed  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  timber  framing  of  the 


181 


100 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


smaller  and  earlier  buildings  of  the  Greeks,  and  therefore  to  be  a  copy, 
in  stone,  of  the  forms  and  parts  of  a  wooden  building. 

It  was  the  theory  of  Vitruvius,  the  principal  ancient  writer  upon 
architecture,  that  the  gradual  substitution  of  stone  for  wood  as  a 
building  material  would  naturally  account  for  certain  elements  in 
which  wood  construction  in  the  Doric  Order  seems  to  be  imitated  in 
stone.  He  says  that  stone  columns  took  the  place  of  wooden  posts, 
and  the  fluting  of  these  columns  corresponded  to  the  chamfers  of  the 


Fig.  52.    Wood  Construction. 

jx).sts.  The  stylobate,  plinth,  and  base,  he  derives  from  a  sill  or  beam 
on  which  the  posts  rested.  The  capital  is  merely  a  plate  or  block, 
intended  to  shorten  the  span  of  the  joists  resting  upon  the  posts,  and  to 
give  the  joists  a  broader  bearing  upon  the  points  of  their  support.  The 
triglyphs  correspond  to  the  ends  of  the  ceiling  beams,  and  the  void 
spaces  l>etween  these  beams  are  the  metopes,  which  were  at  first  left 
open  for  light  and  ventilation,  and  which  were  filled  in  with  decorated 
slabs  only  al  a  later  period.  The  rafters  of  the  roof  projecting  beyond 


182 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


101 


the  frame  of  the  building  gave  the  suggestion  for  a  cornice,  and  the 
mutules  of  the  corona  are  the  ends  of  these  rafters. 

The  guttse  or  drops  have  the  shape  of  pins  used  in  the  framing  of 
timber,  while  the  slope  of  the  roof  itself  gives  the  outline  of  the  pedi- 
ment. These  suppositions  are  not  beyond  criticism  and  can  indeed 
be  met  by  valid  objections,  but  they  are  at  least  plausible  and  interest- 
ing, taken  altogether. 

Belittling,  in  a  way,  as  this  explanation  seems,  it  appears  to  have 
had  general  acceptance  up  to  the 
present  time,  and  has  been  at 
least  ingeniously  supported  by 
many  theorists  to  whom  it  has 
appealed.  The  two  cuts,  Figs.  52 
and  53,  indicate  the  possible  par- 
allels in  wood  and  stone  whereby 
this  growth  may  have  occurred. 
In  any  case  we  must  allow  that 
the  stone  version  is  not  a  mere 
copy  of  the  original,  but  that  it 
has  become  very  highly  idealized 
in  most  of  its  parts.  The  tri- 
glyphs  and  metopes  represent 
what  may  have  been  the  ends  of 
beams  and  the  spaces  between 
them;  and  the  mutules — sloping 
as  they  are  in  most  of  the  Greek 
examples — may  represent  the  ends  of  rafters.  Referring  particularly 
to  Fig.  52,  and  imagining  that  the  column  below  is  done  away  with, 
and  that  the  architrave  is  merely  the  upper  portion  of  a  blank  stone 
wall,  as  is  shown  in  C,  Fig.  54,  we  shall  try  to  find  another  and  more 
logical  reason  for  the  treatment  of  the  frieze  above  it,  than  that  one 
generally  allowed. 

Another  Explanation  of  Origin  of  Doric  Entablature.  First,  we 
must  remember  that  the  wall  below  is  of  stone,  and  that  it  is  unbroken 
by  openings  (as  at  1  C,  Fig.  54).  It  has  no  windows,  as  they  would 
be  too.  much  exposed  to  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather.  Across  the 
top  of  this  stone  wall  is  placed  a  continuous  band  of  coping  (2  C),  to 
protect  its  upper  surface;  and  upon  this  are  set  a  number  of  short, 


Fig.  53.    Stone  Construction. 


183 


102 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


square  upright  posts  or  blocks  (3  C),  leaving  openings  between  them 
for  the  admission  of  light  and  air.  The  beams  and  rafters  of  the  roof 
are  set  immediately  upon  these  square  blocks  (4  C),  and  the  eaves  of 
the  roof  overhang  the  wall  so  as  to  protect  both  it  and  the  windows. 
The  rafters  or  mutules  (4  C),  of  course,  would  naturally  come  directly 
over  the  blocks  or  triglyphs  (3  C),  which  are  set  on  the  coping  or  tsenia 
(2  C);  and  when  the  porch  of  the  temple  or  building  is  reached,  the 
same  treatment  is  continued;  only  here  the  lintel  laid  across  the  col- 
umns becomes  the  architrave  in- 
stead of  the  upper  part  of  a  plain 
wall. 

This  process  of  development 
is  further  supported  by  several 
bits  of  internal  evidence.  It  will 
be  found  that  the  face  of  the 
Greek  triglyph  was  set  flush  or 
in  plane  with  the  face  of  the  wall 
or  architrave  below,  while  the 
face  of  the  metope  was  set  back 
from  this  surface  in  order  to  de- 
mark  distinctly  the  corners  ana 
treatment  of  the  triglyph.  The 
fact  above  does  something  to 
support  the  assumption  that  the 
triglyph  was  not  an  ornament 
applied  upon  the  face  of  the 
frieze,  but  was  rather  an  impor- 
tant structural  member  in  the 
support  of  the  cornice  and  roof  overhead.  This  receives  even  more 
striking  corroboration  in  the  method  of  constructing  these  stone 
entablatures.  By  referring  again  to  Fig.  54,  the  section  through  the 
entablature  at  B,  and  the  plan  through  the  frieze  in  the  entablature 
at  A,  are  both  taken  from  the  Parthenon — a  late  example,  as  we 
have  seen — and  these  two  drawings  reveal  at  once  the  fact  that  the 
triglyph  itself  is  the  most  important  structural  block  in  the  entire 
frieze.  The  space  between,  or  otherwise  the  metope,  is  filled  at  the 
front  by  a  shallow  panel  of  marble  set  in  between  the  triglyphs,  and 
the  space  behind  it  is  filled  with  another  stone  which  does  not  exer- 


Fig.  54.    Sections  showing  Early  Wood 

and  Actual  Stone  Construction 

of  Parthenon. 


134 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  103 

cise  any  direct  significance  upon  the  construction  of  tin-  entablature. 

Again,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  triglyphs  come  directly 
over  the  columns  beneath;  and  this  fact,  along  with  the  use  of  the 
triglyphs  on  the  exact  corner  or  angle  in  Greek  work — where  support 
for  the  work  overhead  on  both  sides  of  the  building  is  most  essential — 
is  explained  only  by  this  method  of  reasoning.  Of  course,  it  would  be 
most  natural  for  the  rafters  of  the  roof  to  be  spaced  directly  over  these 
supporting  blocks;  and  again — as  occurs  in  the  frieze  below,  where  one 
triglyph,  at  least,  comes  over  the  space  between  the  columns — one 
rafter  comes  in  the  space  between  the  triglyphs;  and  so  we  have  the 
elements  necessary  to  produce  the  characteristic  treatment  of  the 
Greek  Doric  entablature. 

One  other  point  should  be  mentioned.  The  carving  that  fre- 
quently ornaments  the  face  of  the  metope  in  many  of  the  Greek  tem- 
ples indicates  by  its  character  another  reason  in  support  of  this  theory. 
This  carving  was  most  frequently  in  the  nature  of  trophies  or  decora- 
tive groups  composed  of  various  arms  and  pieces  of  body  armor;  and 
it  seems  very  probable  that  this  style  of  ornament  originated  from  the 
fact  that  in  earlier  buildings  this  open  space  between  the  triglyphs  was 
often  filled  with  votive  offerings  of  arms  taken  from  captives  and 
placed  around  the  temple  in  this  fashion.  So,  when  this  space  was 
closed  in  in  later  work,  the  decoration  of  its  face  by  a  presentment  of 
the  trophy  itself  would  seem  very  natural  to  the  builders. 

As  the  temples  increased  in  size,  they  became  more  difficult  to 
light  from  these  small  openings  beneath*  the  cornice,  and  it  became 
necessary  to  open  a  large  space  in  the  roof  for  this  purpose.  It  must 
have  been  about  this  time  that  the  metop^  space  began  to  be  encum- 
bered with  trophies  of  armor,  and  soon  thereafter  it  was  closed  en- 
tirely by  blocks  of  marble,  until  its  ancient  purpose  was  entirely  given 
up  and  disregarded. 

Stone  Character  of  Greek  Buildings  with  Doric  Order.  Which- 
ever of  these  theories  be  the  more  nearly  correct,  there  can  be  no 
question  as  to  the  merit  of  the  Grecian  architecture  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  7th  century  B.  C.  The  builders  of  that  day  broke  completely 
with  the  traditions  of  timber  construction  with  which  they  were  familiar 
and  whose  slightness  they  might  have  been  tempted  to  imitate,  whereas 
they  established  with  real  force  and  complete  reasonableness  the 
essential  principles  of  a  new  mode  of  building. 


185 


104  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

From  this  standpoint  the  monumental  works  of  Doric  archi- 
tecture that  arose  at  the  end  of  the  7th  century  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  6th  in  Corinth,  Agrigentum,  Syracuse,  Segesta,  and  Psestum, 
are  beyond  criticism.  By  the  5th  century,  the  proportions  have  been 
modified,  and  practiced  hands  and  eyes  have  given  to  them  greater 
elegance  of  detail  and  more  refinement  in  the  mass;  but  the  new  system 
of  construction  remains  unchanged. 

Thus  was  formed  in  the  Greek  Doric  Order  the  first  development 
of  its  kind,  and  one  that  proved  to  be  the  progenitor  of  the  other  suc- 
ceeding Orders,  as  well  as  the  very,  beginning  of  architecture  as  a 
fine  art. 

Afterwards,  in  parts  of  Macedonia  and  at  Pompeii,  the  propor- 
tions of  the  Doric  Order  are  accentuated  in  their  height;  it  loses  the 
robust  aspect  and  strength  of  its  character;  and  soon,  in  other  aspects 
than  the  slimness  of  the  column  shaft,  the  decadence,  which  has  com- 
menced, becomes  more  manifest. 

Type  Form  of  Greek  Doric  Order.  Plate  XXXVIII  displays  a 
type  form  of  the  Greek  Doric  Order,  the  scale  of  parts  being  shown 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  plate,  and  the  size  of  the  column,  in  width,  as 
parts  at  the  base.  The  column  is  cut  below  the  capital  and  above  the 
base,  so  as  to  get  both  entablature  and  base  on  the  page  at  a  large  size. 
At  the  right  of  the  plate,  a  section  through  the  entablature  is  shown  by 
a  darker  section  line,  to  indicate  how  the  surfaces  project  beyond  each 
other.  This  section  is  the  outline  that  would  be  obtained  if  the  cor- 
nice were  cut  through;  or  it«iay  be  considered  as  the  pattern  of  the 
sides  of  the  stones  of  which  the  Order  is  composed.  Beside  the 
capital  of  the  column  is  the  plan  of  the  underside  or  soffit  of  the  over- 
hanging cornice,  showing  the  ornamentation  frequently  used  at  the 
corner  angle  and  the  little  circular  gutta?  which  are  shown  in  their 
location  on  the  main  elevation  of  the  Order.  At  the  left  of  the  cap  is 
another  drawing  of  the  outline  of  the  capital  at  a  larger  scale. 

In  the  example  of  the  Greek  Doric  Order  shown  in  Plate  XXX- 
VIII,  the  column  has  twenty  channels  or  flutes,  as  shown  in  plan  in 
Fig.  55,  and  rests  upon  a  stylobate  or  platform  generally  consisting  of 
three  high  steps.  By  referring  to  Fig.  88,  an  elevation  of  the  Propylam 
at  Athens,  through  which  entrance  was  obtained  to  the  Acropolis 
above,  the  general  appearance  and  use  of  this  Order  will  be  seen  quite 
clearly.  One  invariable  characteristic  of  this  column,  which  in  part 


186 


o  o  o 

o  o 

©  o 

o  o  o 

o  o  o 

GOO 


PLATE  XXXVIII. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXXVIII.) 

* 


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STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


105 


indicates  its  more  elementary  form  as  well  as  its  direct  derivation  from 
the  rock-cut  pier,  is  the  absence  of  a  base.  The  channels  run  directly 
down,  and  stop  against  or  upon  the  platform  or  stylobate  upon  which 
the  shaft  rests;  and  at  the  top  they  are  worked  out  again  to  the  horizon- 
tal fillets  or  annulets  of  the  capital.  The  number  of  these  channels 
is  always  even.  As  has  been  said,  the  number  of  twenty  was  usually 
employed,  although  in  one  example — that  of  the  Great  Temple  at 
Psestum — have  been  found  col- 
umns of  twenty-four  flutes  in  the 
exterior  order,  and  columns  of 
twenty  and  even  as  few  as  six- 
teen flutes  in  the  interior.  But 
in  the  best  examples  in  Athens, 
the  number  is  invariably  twenty, 
while  their  section  is  always 
semi-elliptical,  or,  in  early  work, 
the  segment  of  a  circle. 

The  Greek  Doric  Capital. 
The  capital  of  the  Doric  order 
consists  of  two  principal  parts,  a 
plain  Abacus  and  a  moulding  of 
refined  outline  termed  an  Echi= 
nus,  with  generally  three  Listels  or  Annulets  below  it.  The  abacus, 
or  upper  member  of  the  cap,  is  a  plain  block,  rectangular  in 
elevation,  and  is  the  only  member  of  this  column  that  is  square 
in  plan.  The  echinus,  or  lower  member  of  the  capital,  is  in 
vertical  section  always  a  freehand  curve.  This  curve  approaches 
an  ellipse  or  hyperbola,  the  lower  part  of  which  ends  in  a  series  of 
fillets  varying  from  two  to  five  in  number.  These  fillets  carry  around 
below  the  echinus  moulding,  and  separate  the  capital  from  the 
channeled  neck  or  shaft  of  the  column.  A  necking  is  sometimes 
suggested  by  separating  a  certain  portion  of  the  column  from  the 
remainder  of  the  shaft  by  a  deeply  sunk  channel.  This  square 
channel  or  sinkage  takes  the  place  of  an  astragal ;  and  the  necking  of 
the  column  cap  is  always  either  plain  or  fluted,  being  treated  to  agree 
with  the  column  shaft.  The  total  height  of  the  Doric  capital  is  one 
module,  or  one-half  the  column  diameter  at  the  base. 

General  Rule  for  Height  of  Shaft.    The  proportion  of  the  necking 


Fig.  55.    Method  of  Fluting  Greek  Doric 
Columns. 


189 


106  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

to  the  base  of  the  column,  as  shown  in  the  order,  Plate  XXXVIII,  is  as 
48  parts  or  minutes  compared  to  60;  while  the  height  of  the  shaft, 
including  the  capital,  varies  in  ancient  examples,  but,  for  our  present 
purpose,  may  be  taken  as  being  seven  diameters  of  the  column,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  50.  The  column  used  on  the  Parthenon  will,  by  refer- 
ence to  the  example  in-Plate  XXXVII,  be  found  to  be  only  five  and 
one-half  diameters  in  height,  instead  of  the  seven  diameters  which  has 
just  been  recommended.  But  this  apparent  contradiction  is  explained 
by  two  facts.  In  the  first  place,  the  column  of  the  Parthenon  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  perfect  that  could  be  devised  for  use  as  it  is  there 
employed — in  very  large  size  and  under  a  wide,  flat,  spreading  pedi- 
ment with  a  long  colonnade  on  each  returning  side  of  the  building. 
But  for  modern  purposes,  where  no  such  grandeur  of  scale  is  possible, 
some  considerable  change  is  advisable;  as  the  column  would  not  be 
nearly  so  large,  it  requires  rather  a  slender  and  graceful  than  a  sturdy 
shaft.  The  fact  that  the  columns  would  be  placed  farther  apart  than 
in  the  example  of  the  Parthenon,  also  necessitates  the  acceptance  of  a 
quite  different  principle  to  govern  their  composition,  although  we 
should  adhere  directly  to  the  general  Greek  lines,  and  as  for  most  pur- 
poses the  Order  would  be  reproduced  to-day  in  wood,  this  consideration 
would  also  tend  to  lighten  the  proportions  and  effect  of  the  shaft. 

The  Stylobate.  The  steps  forming  the  stylobate  on  which  the 
column  rests  should  be  a  certain  proportion  of  its  diameter,  and  each 
step  should  not  be  less  in  height  than  fifteen  parts,  or  one-quarter  of 
the  column  diameter.  In  Plate  XXXVIII  is  shown  one  of  these  steps 
at  the  correct  proportion  as  regards  the  Order  as  a  whole;  while  another 
instance  of  their  correct  use  is  shown  in  the  plate  illustrating  the  small 
temple  of  Diana  Propyltea  at  Eleusis  (Plate  XXXV). 

The  Entablature.  Architrave.  Above  the  column  is  placed 
the  entablature,  with  the  architrave  resting  directly  on  the  abacus  of 
the  capital  Its  lower  division,  or  architrave,  shown  in  Plate  XXX- 
VIII,  is  merely  a  plain  stone  lintel  laid  across  and  upon  the  supporting 
columns  and  carrying  in  its  turn  the  frieze.  This  lintel  equals  in 
thickness  the  width  of  the  column  at  its  neck,  and  between  the  capitals 
forms  a  soffit  which,  in  this  Order,  is  left  perfectly  plain.  This  archi- 
trave is  so  arranged  that  the  joints  always  correspond  with  the  axes  of 
the  columns,  except  at  the  column  on  the  angle  where  there  is  no 
joint  on  the  principal  fa9ade. 


190 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  107 

The  only  mouldings  on  the  architrave  are  the  listel  and  the  ta>nia 
which  crown  it,  and  which  serve  to  separate  it  from  the  frieze.  The 
listel  or  regula  is  quite  small,  and  is  used  in  short  sections  occurring 
directly  beneath  the  triglyphs  in  the  frieze  above,  being  always  of  a 
length  to  correspond  to  the  width  of  the  face  of  the  triglyph.  Six  con- 
ical drops  or  guttae  are  placed  at  regular  intervals  beneath,  and  hanging 
from,  the  listel. 

Frieze.  The  frieze,  resting  directly  on  the  taenia  or  architrave, 
is  decorated  by  ornaments  termed  Triglyphs,  that  are  used  only  on 
the  face  of  the  Doric  entablature  and  remain  its  most  distinctive 
feature.  These  triglyphs  are  blocks,  rectangular  in  shape,  and  of  a 
height  in  proportion  to  the  width  of  the  column,  spaced  evenly  along 
the  face  of  the  frieze,  and  having  their  faces  carved  with  two  per- 
pendicular, incised  channels  or  sinkages,  V-shaped  in  section ;  and  two 
half-channels  on  the  corner  edges  running  from  the  top  of  the  taenia 
to  just  below  the  lowest  member  of  the  cornice,  where  they  are  stopped, 
or  again  worked  out  to  the  surface  of  the  triglyph.  These  channels 
imitate  the  cutting  of  the  ends  of  wooden  beams  resting  upon  the 
transverse  architrave  or  lintel.  Generally  the  width  of  the  triglyphs 
is  very  nearly  equal  to  one-half  the  column  diameter  at  the  base,  and  they 
extend  in  height  from  the  top  of  the  taenia  to  the  bottom  of  the  lowest 
member  of  the  cornice,  which  is  broken  around  to  receive  them.  The 
regula  and  dependent  guttse  hang  on  the  face  of  the  architrave  below, 
and  in  line  with  the  triglyph  in  every  case.  These  guttse  are  pyramidal 
or  conical-shaped  blocks  or  drops  representing  either  portions  of  the 
early  wooden  construction,  or  they  may  have  been  suggested  by  de- 
pendent drops  of  water. 

Disposition  of  the  Triglyphs  in  the  Frieze.  It  is  interesting  to 
take  some  account  of  the  manner  in  which  these  triglyphs  are  placed 
in  the  frieze.  Generally  they  occur  above  each  column  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  space  between  the  columns  (see  Fig.  58  and  Plate  XXX- 
V) ;  but  in  all  Greek  architecture  there  is  an  exception  in  their  placing 
on  the  angle  of  the  building,  where  they  are  brought  out  to  the  extreme 
edge,  so  that  the  respective  corner  triglyphs  on  the  two  sides  come 
together  or  miter,  on  the  angle,  showing  one  complete  triglyph  on 
each  side  of  the  building,  but  both  possessing  the  corner  half-channel 
in  common.  Except  on  the  corner  of  the  building,  as  shown  in  Plate 
XXXVIII,  the  triglyphs  occur  directly  over  the  center  line  of  the  col- 


191 


108  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

umns  or  over  the  spaces  beneath,  as  will  be  shown  more  exactly  in 
taking  up  the  intercolumniation  of  the  Greek  Orders.  As  a  result  of 
placing  the  corner  triglyph,  not  over  the  middle  of  the  column  but  on 
the  extreme  angle  of  the  frieze,  the  next  triglyph  does  not  occur  over 
the  center  of  the  space  between  these  two  columns,  but  is  placed 
equally  distant  between  the  two  neighboring  triglyphs.  This  dispo- 
sition, if  the  spacing  of  the  columns  below  remains  the  same,  necessarily 
gives  the  two  last  metopes  a  dimension  different  from  the  others.  But, 
by  slightly  altering  the  intercolumniation  of  the  columns  that  occur  on 
the  angle  of  the  building,  and  making  them  a  little  nearer  together 
than  those  on  the  rest  of  the  colonnade,  the  inequality  can  be  so  dis- 
tributed that  it  will  not  be  observed.  The  column  at  the  angle  is  some- 
times heavier  and  more  strongly  inclined  toward  the  interior  of  the 
building  in  order  to  assist  in  rendering  these  irregularities  less  apparent, 
and  also  in  part  to  conform  with  the  laws  of  ocular  stability  and  so 
make  a  better  effect  upon  the  eye.  The  space  between  the  triglyphs, 
always  square,  is  called  the  Metope,  and  in  many  of  the  Greek  temples 
was  decorated  with  sculpture  in  relief,  whose  extreme  face  was  nearly 
in  plane  with  the  face  of  the  frieze. 

The  placing  of  the  triglyphs  directly  on  the  corner,  and  the  recess- 
ing of  the  metope  faces  in  order  to  have  the  triglyph  face  in  plane  with 
the  architrave  face,  are  two  distinctive  customs  of  Greek  usage  that 
are  at  variance  with  the  later  Roman  examples  of  the  Doric  Order ; 
although  there  is  no  parallel  case,  so  far  as  the  corner  treatment  is 
concerned,  in  real  Roman  work. 

Cornice.  Above  these  triglyphs  and  metopes,  and  breaking 
around  them,  runs  a  small  band  and  a. fillet,  above  which  occurs  the 
rest  of  the  Doric  entablature,  composed  of  two  parts,  a  bed-mould  and 
corona,  the  principal  one  being  the  corona,  serving,  as  we  have  already 
said,  to  throw  the  water  that  falls  upon  the  roof  to  a  certain  distance 
from  the  foot  of  the  edifice.  This  corona — which,  because  of  its  use, 
is  the  most  essential  member  of  the  cornice — is  a  strongly  projecting 
part,  and  is  accompanied  on  its  under  side  by  a  series  of  inclined 
mutules  of  the  same  width  as  the  triglyphs.  These  intitules  are  placed 
directly  over  each  triglyph,  and  have  in  turn  guttce — generally  eighteen 
in  number  arranged  in  three  rows  of  six  guttle  each — depending  from 
their  soffits,  theguttae  being  invariably  round  in  plan  and  comparatively 
shallow  in  depth.  Occasionally  the  space  between  these  mutules  and 


192 


a  2 
It 


-       STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  109 

over  the  metope  is  left  plain,  or  it  is  sometimes  paneled,  while  in  other 
cases  another  mutule  is  inserted  directly  over  the  center  of  the  metope 
below.  Occasionally,  though  more  rarely,  there  are  instances  where 
the  guttae  and  regula  below  the  tsenia  are  also  placed  beneath  this 
interpolated  mutule  and  below  the  plain  space  of  the  metope.  In  the 
example  of  the  Order  shown  in  Plate  XXXVIII,  these  mutules  are 
shown  with  eighteen  guttse,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  small  plan  of  the 
soffit  drawn  at  the  right  of  the  column.  The  mutules  themselves  in 
Greek  work  are  generally  sloping.  The  plan  of  this  cornice  soffit  also 
shows  the  treatment  on  the  corner  angle,  where  the  square  space  left 
between  the  two  mutules  is  carved,  generally  after  the  fashion  shown 
in  this  example. 

The  corona  is  surmounted  by  a  separating  moulding  that  is  found 
again  across  the  pediment;  while  crowning  all  is  the  gutter,  the  face 
of  which  generally  forms  the  cyma  of  the  cornice;  and  this  exterior 
face  is  oftentimes  decorated  with  the  heads  of  lions,  from  whose  open 
mouths  spouts  the  water  escaping  from  the  roof.  The  cyma  is  re- 
peated on  the  sloping  cornices  of  the  pediment,  but  the  lions'  heads, 
having  no  utility,  are  here  omitted. 

The  mouldings  of  the  Doric  Order  are  never  given  sculptured 
ornaments. 

GREEK  MOULDINGS 

The  various  divisions  of  an  Order  are  adorned  with  mouldings 
projecting  beyond  the  face  of  the  parts  to  which  they  are  applied. 
They  vary  somewhat  in  shape,  ornamentation,  and  number,  in  the 
different  Orders.  There  is  more  difference  in  this  particular  between 
the  Doric  and  Ionic  Orders,  than  between  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian. 

The  principal  Greek  mouldings  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  46,  and 
will  now  be  described.  The  fillet  or  listel,  a  narrow  flat  moulding 
(A),  is  seldom  used  alone,  and  generally  with  a  larger  moulding. 
When  the  fillet  broadens  out,  it  becomes  a  fascia,  a  name  more  prop- 
erly applied  to  the  several  plain  faces  comprising  the  architrave  (I). 

The  astragal  (C)  is  the  name  of  a  small  moulding  whose  outline 
is  a  half-circle.  A  large  astragal  is  called  a  torus  (O).  In  ordinary 
use  the  heavy  moulding  at  the  base  of  an  Ionic  or  Corinthian  column 
is  a  torus,  while  the  light  moulding  separating  the  shaft  from  the  neck- 
ing of  the  capital  is  called  the  astragal. 


193 


110  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

Echinus  (E)  is  the  name  of  a  moulding  whose  outline  is  somewhat 
like  the  segment  of  an  ellipse.  In  Roman  work  the  echinus  is  debased 
to  a  quarter-round  (K)  in  section,  drawn  with  an  exact  quarter-circle. 

The  cove  (D)  is  a  concave  moulding  whose  profile  is  the  arc  of  a 
circle  or  of  an  ellipse. 

The  scotia  (L)  is  a  concave  moulding  whose  outline  is  a  cove. 
This  moulding  is  generally  used  between  two  toruses  at  the  base  of 
the  column. 

The  cyma  (F)  has  an  outline  composed  of  a  concave  above  and  a 
convex  below;  it  may  be  considered  as  compounded  of  a  cove  and  a 
quarter-round. 

The  ogee  (B)  is  the  reverse  of  the  cyma,  convex  above  and 
concave  below — or,  as  it  were,  a  quarter-round  above  a  cove. 

The  corona  (G)  is  the  term  applied  to  the  upper  projecting  part 
of  a  cornice,  between  the  crowning  moulding  or  cyma  and  the  lower 
edge  or  soffit  of  the  projection ;  its  principal  purpose  is  to  shed  rain 
water  beyond  the  face  of  the  wall.  The  underside  of  a  corona  is 
termed  the  soffit  (H). 

A  characteristic  Greek  section  is  that  shown  at  M — the  beak- 
moulding  so-called — where  the  member  is  deeply  undercut  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  a  drip. 

Mutules  and  triglyphs,  distinctive  parts  of  the  Doric  Order  only, 
will  be  defined  more  thoroughly  later  on  when  discussing  that  Order. 

All  these  mouldings  may  be  indefinitely  varied  to  suit  their  location 
and  purpose.  They  may  have  more  or  less  sharpness  of  outline,  more 
or  less  projection,  and  invariably  derive  their  effect  solely  from  the 
play  of  light  and  shade  upon  their  surfaces.  Their  architectural 
character  is  determined  even  more  by  the  refinement,  than  by  the 
sharpness  or  flatness,  of  their  outline.  By  combination  in  different 
groups,  we  obtain  a  body  of  mouldings  whose  outline  will  have  a 
character  depending  on  the  greater  or  less  projection  of  the  different 
members  used  in  the  composition.  Sharp  outlines  result  from  marked 
projections;  blunt  outlines,  from  slight  projections;  and  "limp"  out- 
lines are  the  result  of  a  composition  in  which  all  the  mouldings  are 
of  equal  importance.  Accordingly,  in  architectural  design,  the  study 
of  profile  with  regard  to  the  action  of  light  and  shade  across  its  surface 
is  of  the  utmost  imjx>rtance;  and  the  use  of  mouldings  is  further  com- 


194 


PLATE  XXXIX. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XXXIX.) 


195 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  111 

plicated  by  their  decoration  with  carving,  or,  as  was  done  by  the  Greek 
artists,  even  with  painting. 

The  use  and  proportions  of  these  mouldings  should  also  be 
studied  in  the  plates  devoted  to  the  illustration  of  Greek  architecture 
and  the  Greek  Orders,  and  in  Plate  XXXIX,  in  which  some  of  the 
most  characteristic  sections  are  shown  at  one-sixth  their  actual  size. 
In  this  plate,  the  mouldings  numbered  1,  2,  and  3  are  sections  taken 
from  capitals  of  the  Parthenon,  showing  the  echinus  moulding  and  the 
channelings  beneath  it.  Mouldings  4  and  5  are  from  capitals  of  the 
Propylsea  at  Athens;  and  moulding  6,  from  the  Theseum.  Mouldings 
7,  8,  and  9  indicate  the  method  of  determining  the  flutings  on  the 
shafts  of  the  various  Doric  columns  used  in  the  Parthenon.  Moulding 
10  is  a  section  through  a  portion  of  a  cornice  at  the  Parthenon. 
Moulding  11  is  from  the  Propylsea;  moulding  12,  from  the  Erechtheum; 
and  moulding  13,  from  the  Theseum — all  at  Athens.  A  base  moulding 
from  the  Theseum  is  shown  at  14,  while  at  15  the  cap  of  an  anta  from 
the  same  temple  is  illustrated.  Moulding  16  is  taken  through  the 
base  of  the  column  of  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  and  extends  to  the 
face  of  the  course  upon  which  it  sets.  Mouldings  17  and  18  are 
bases  from  the  north  porch  of  the  Erechtheum,  one  taken  from  the 
base  of  the  column,  and  the  other  from  the  accompanying  anta. 

It  must  be  noticed  that  the  sections  of  Greek  mouldings  are  totally 
different  from  those  afterward  developed  by  the  Romans.  The 
members  or  mouldings  composing  the  Greek  entablatures  and  used 
throughout  their  buildings  and  Orders,  are  very  strongly  characterized ; 
and  were  designed  with  a  sole  regard  to  their  effect  in  gathering  shadow 
and  forming  a  drip  to  throw  off  the  water  running  over  them,  and  so 
protect  the  face  of  the  stonework  below.  These  mouldings  were  cut 
quite  without  any  regard  for  the  expenditure  of  time  or  labor,  and  for 
that  reason  they  are  very  difficult  to  reproduce  under  modern  con- 
ditions. 

In  any  use  of  Greek  motives,  or  in  any  place  where  the  Greek 
effect  of  purity  is  desired  to  be  obtained,  particular  care  should  be 
taken  to  use  the  characteristic  mouldings  which  the  Greeks  them- 
selves developed  to  such  a  wonderful  degree  of  refinement  and  per- 
fection; and  we  should  acknowledge,  by  copying  these  sections  as 
exactly  as  possible,  the  fact  that  they  are  indisputably  more  perfect 
and  distinctive  than  any  variation  that  we  are  likely  to  invent  to-day. 


197 


112  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

These  mouldings  are  of  a  fineness  that  requires  their  execution 
in  the  finest  materials,  in  which  alone  they  can  be  cut  with  any  degree 
of  refinement  and  truth.  This  cutting,  too,  requires  a  skill  and  care 
on  the  part  of  the  workman  that  may  be  attained  to-day  only  under  the 
most  exceptional  conditions  and  at  great  proportional  expense.  Each 
bit  of  detail  or  moulding  should  be  produced  with  the  utmost  exacti- 
tude from  some  careful  study  of  the  original  Greek  form.  The  least 
hesitation  in  touch  or  carelessness  in  handling  must  result  in  a  definite 
blemish. 

Decoration  of  Mouldings.  It  will  always  be  noted  that  certain 
mouldings  bespeak  certain  definite  and  characteristic  carved  or  painted 
ornaments.  In  Plate  XL  are  shown  some  Greek  mouldings  with  the 
proper  accompanying  ornaments  which  the  Greek  sculptors  devised 
to  enrich  and  increase  the  effect  of  the  different  moulding  sections. 
The  fitness  of  the  ornament  to  emphasize  in  all  cases  the  contour  of  the 
moulding  section,  should  be  especially  noticed.  It  does  not  confuse 
and  hide  the  member  as  a  whole  at  the  expense  of  the  shadow  effect 
which  its  contour  is  designed  to  produce,  as  is  often  the  case  in  later 
Roman  wrork;  but  in  each  instance  the  placing  of  shadow  on  the  carved 
member  helps  to  accent  and  increase,  for  the  spectator,  the  outline 
effect  of  the  complete  moulding. 

At  K,  L  and  N  are  shown  various  modifications  of  the  well-known 
Greek  fret,  or  band  ornament.  This  ornament  is  used  in  a  great 
variety  of  forms,  and,  as  employed  by  the  Greeks  upon  plain  surfaces, 
must  be  considered  the  most  perfect  decoration  that  has  ever  been 
evolved  from  the  use  of  a  geometrical  figure  composed  solely  of  right- 
angled  lines. 

The  guilloche,  or  woven=band  moulding,  shown  at  O,  as  well  as 
the  simpler  form  at  M,  also  embodies  a  distinctive  Greek  method  of 
enriching  a  flat  or  slightly  curved  band,  while  the  same  design  is  fre- 
quently employed  on  tfre  torus  moulding  (C). 

The  so-called  running  dog  or  Vitruvian  wave  moulding  shown 
over  the  guilloche  at  M,  is  also  a  typical  Greek  decorative  ornament, 
and  is  used  in  much  the  same  maner  as  is  the  fret.  At  P  and  Q  are 
shown  two  portions  of  the  palmette  or  honeysuckle  and  akroter 
ornament,  consisting  of  two  alternating  plant  forms  connected  by 
scrolls.  These  examples  are  taken  from  the  pilaster  and  column 


198 


ORNANENT,D '  MOVLDINGS 


PLATE  XL.  • 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plat*  XL.) 


199 


c    C 

•=  -5 


1 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  113 

friezes  of  the  Erechtheum  at  Athens.     This  design  is  frequently  used 
on  a  crowning  cyma  moulding  of  large  size  (B). 

The  egg=and=dart  moulding  (I)  is  a  succession  of  repetitions 
of  forms  derived  from  the  egg  and  the  arrow,  and  is  a  characteristic 
decoration  of  the  echinus  or  quarter-round. 

Beads,  or  reels  and  beads  alternating  singly  or  in  groups,  are 
the  characteristic  ornament  of  the  astragal  (A,  C,  D). 

The  leaf=and=dart  (G,  J, — water  plant  and  arrows)  is  applied 
to  the  ogee. 

IONIC  ORDER 

Origin  of  the  Ionic  Order.  Very  possibly,  at  about  the  same 
time  as  the  Doric  column  was  slowly  developing  from  the  rock-cut 
pier,  the  use  of  tree  trunks  for  support  had  suggested  a  circular  tapering 
form  of  a  column  to  those  nations  who  erected  their  buildings  of  wood. 
It  is  very  likely  that  the  early  columns  were  first  used  as  a  form  of 
nature  worship,  in  which  case  their  derivation  from  the  trees  would 
very  naturally  cause  them  to  be  employed  particularly  in  temples. 
We  know  that  one  form  of  Egyptian  column  was  modeled  closely 
upon  the  palm  tree.  We  have  already  seen  in  Egypt  the  beginnings  of 
the  Doric  column,  and  we  shall  soon  find  in  the  Corinthian  another 
form  that  may  have  been  either  borrowed  from  or  suggested  by  Egyp- 
tian precedent.  So  it  is  that,  for  the  original  of  the  Ionic  Order,  we 
must  go  back  to  the  tree,  just  as  we  have  to  the  rock-cut  pier  for  the 
Doric.  Everything  points  to  this — the  lightness  and  grace  of  the 
column  itself;  its  entasis,  which  nearly  approximates  the  natural 
diminution  of  the  trunk  of  the  growing  tree;  as  well  as  the  simple 
entablature  of  moulded  members,  all  running  horizontally  and  at 
right  angles  to  the  perpendicular  lines  of  the  column.  This  Order  is 
as  evidently  developed  from  the  wooden  buildings  of  the  plains  as  the 
earlier  Order  was  from  the  rock  caves  of  the  hills ;  and,  in  adapting  it 
to  use  in  stone,  much  of  its  character  was  preserved. 

Essential  Differences  between  Ionic  and  Doric  Orders.  The 
Ionic  Order  being  a  later  growth  than  the  Doric,  is  much  more  gen- 
erally graceful  in  its  proportions,  and  even  the  early  examples  do  not 
show  the  clumsy  processes  of  growth  to  the  extent  that  we  have  found 
in  the  study  of  the  preceding  Order.  Either  these  examples  have  been 
destroyed,  or,  what  is  quite  as  likely,  the  Greek  artists  adapted  their 


201 


114 


experience  in  developing  the  Doric  column,  directly  to  this  more  deli- 
cate form.  At  any  rate,  we  find  that  all  the  examples  remaining  in 
Greece  may  almost  be  considered  as  perfect  types.  The  greatest 
number  of  examples  of  the  Ionic  Order  are  found  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
are  generally  of  less  value  and  of  a  later  date. 

The  most  marked  change  to  be  noticed  is  that  evidenced  in  the 
entablature  itself,  where  we  find  that  all  the  ornaments  in  the  frieze 
and  soffit  of  the  cornice,  which  characterize  so  distinctly  the  Greek 
Doric  Order,  have  been  done  away  with,  and  that  both  spaces  are  now 
left  plain.  The  entire  entablature  now  consists  of  simple,  horizontal 
mouldings  such  as  would  be  most  appropriate  to  the  nature  of  wood. 
This  entablature  is  about  the  same  proportion  in  relation  to  its  column 
diameter  as  is  the  Doric,  being  two  diameters  in  height.  The  column 
being  higher  than  the  Doric,  its  effect  is,  of  course,  much  lighter  and 
more  graceful,  The  architrave  is  very  high  and  often  entirely  plain, 
while  the  cornice  is  low  in  height.  This  throws  the  frieze  above  the 
position  it  ordinarily  occupies  in  the  entablature — a  feature  also 
found,  in  fact,  in  the  Greek  Doric  Order,  although  with  a  different 
effect. 

The  characterization  of  the  first  two  Greek  Orders,  as  given  by 
Vitruvius,  is  suggestive.  In  speaking  of  the  origin  of  the  Orders,  he 
states  that  the  Doric  reproduces  the  proportions  of  the  body  of  a  man, 
while  the  Ionic  attempts  to  equal  the  graceful  proportions  of  a  woman, 
and  so  he  gives  the  height  of  eight  diameters  to  these  Ionic  columns. 
Following  the  same  author,  the  base,  which  first  appears  with  the 
Ionic  column,  represents  the  drapery  of  the  woman's  long  gown  gathered 
around  the  feet;  and — to  further  follow  out  such  a  fancy — the  volutes 
of  the  capital  may  suggest  some  methods  of  doing  up  the  hair,  while 
the  channels  of  the  shaft  may  typify  the  long,  hanging  folds  of  the 
woman's  garments. 

The  opinion  of  Vitruvius  is  reproduced  here,  more  for  its  value 
in  strongly  demarking  the  difference  in  character  that  actually  exists 
between  these  two  Orders.  The  Doric  Order  is  the  national  Order  of 
the  Doric  race — strong,  vigorous,  and  austere;  in  its  simplicity  of 
detail,  in  its  lack  of  decoration  and  sculptured  moulding,  it  expresses 
not  so  much  beauty,  as  vigor,  in  all  the  full,  robust  perfection  of  Greek 
manhood.  On  the  contrary,  the  Ionic  Order  displays  more  of  refine- 
ment and  elegance;  the  ornaments  are  alike  more  varied  .and  of 


202 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  115 

greater  richness;  it  becomes  the  national  order  of  the  lonians,  and  ac- 
quires in  their  hands,  in  Greece  in  the  century  of  Pericles,  and  in  Asia 
with  Phidias,  the  highest  degree  of  grace  and  perfection. 

It  is  simpler,  however,  to  remember  that  while  the  Doric  column 
represents  the  treatment  of  a  stone  form  or  pier,  the  Ionic,  a  lighter 
development,  was  more  directly  inspired  by  the  trees  and  early  round 
wooden  shafts,  and  was  first  reproduced  in  stone  at  a  period  when  the 
workmen  had  acquired  sufficient  skill  in  working  harder  materials  to 
preserve  something  of  the  grace  and  lightness  of  the  original. 

Description  of  the  Ionic  Order,  and  Various  Examples.  The 
Greek  Ionic  Order  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  come  from  the  East, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Assyria  and  Persia.  Some  authorities  claim  that  it 
was  used  in  its  present  form  first  in  the  island  of  Ionia,  whence  its 
name.  The  column  has  a  base,  and  a  cap  with  characteristic  spiral- 
shaped  ornaments.  The  column  is  eight  or  nine  times  its  diameter, 
in  height,  with,  as  a  rule,  24  flutings.  The  entablature  consists  of  the 
architrave,  which  has  three  f ascias  and  a  crowning  member ;  the  frieze, 
plain  or  sometimes  decorated  with  a  continuous  sculptured  bas-relief; 
and  the  cornice,  having  an  overhanging  corona  and  bed-mouldings, 
with  sometimes  a  dentil  course  or  egg-and-torigue  mouldings. 

The  Erechtheum  at  Athens  is  the  best  known  example  of  this 
Order,  others  being  the  interior  columns  of  the  Propylsea,  the  Temple 
of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  and  the  Mausoleum  of  Halicarnassus. 

The  Ionic  Order  was  apparently  used  for  the  first  time  on  the 
Artemisian  Temple  of  Diana  (or  Artemis)  at  Ephesus,  constructed 
about  580  B.C.  In  the  fifth  century  this  brilliant  Order  was  used  with 
much  success  in  the  Propylsea  at  Athens,  where  it  is  employed  along 
with  the  Doric,  in  the  small  Temple  of  the  Nike  Apteros,  or  Wing- 
less  Victory;  and  in  the  Erechtheum. 

The  fourth  century  B.C.  is,  for  the  Ionic  style,  also  a  brilliant 
period,  though  it  is  no  longer  in  Greece  but  in  Asia  Minor  that  we 
shall  find  the  best  material  for  study.  There  is  the  superb  Tomb  and 
the  Temple  at  Priene,  and  the  Temple  of  Apollo  Didymreus;  while 
Polonios  of  Ephesus  and  Daphnis  of  Miletus  often  employed  the 
Ionic  Order  with  the  most  consummate  art. 

In  most  of  the  temples  of  Asia  Minor,  there  exists  between  the 
corona  and  the  frieze  a  row  of  dentils  used  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  on  the  Porch  of  the  Caryatides  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens. 


203 


116  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

Height  of  Shaft.  In  the  Greek  Ionic  buildings  of  which  we 
possess  definite  remains,  the  columns  vary  in  height  between  a  little 
more  than  eight  and  a  little  less  than  nine  diameters.  The  measure- 
ment of  eight  diameters  and  one-half,  which  Vitruvius  gives  to  the 
Ionic  column,  may  be  considered  as  coming  in  the  exact  middle 
between  these  two  extremes;  although  later  authorities  — for  the  same 
reason  as  already  given  regarding  the  Doric  column — prefer  to  take 
the  highest  dimension  as  a  standard  for  modern  purposes.  The 
diameter  of  the  column  at  the  top  of  the  shaft  varies  from  eight  to 
eight  and  one-half  tenths  of  its  diameter  at  the  base.  Thus  we  see 
that  this  column  has  at  once  a  higher,  more  slender,  and  more  graceful 
shaft  than  the  Doric,  and  that  there  is  also  less  difference  between  the 
diameter  at  the  base  and  neck  than  in  the  shorter  and  stumpier  Doric 
shaft.  On  the  Erechtheum,  of  which  we  have  given  a  drawing  in 
Plate  XLIV,  the  height  is  a  little  less  than  nine  diameters.  The 
columns  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  Didymseus  are  a  little  more  than 
ten ;  but  those  of  Athena  at  Priene  are  approximately  nine  diameters, 
and  the  Temple  of  Hera  at  Samos  eight  diameters  and  one-half; 
while  on  the  little  Temple  of  Artemis  near  the  bank  of  the  Ilissus, 
the  column — according  to  Stewart,  who  has  reconstructed  it — has  a 
height  of  eight  diameters  and  one-fourth. 

The  Greek  Ionic  column  has  also  much  less  taper  than  any  of  the 
Greek  Doric  shafts,  while  it  is  notable  in  at  least  one  instance — that 
of  the  North  Porch  of  the  Erechtheum,  or,  more  properly,  the  Portico 
to  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias — that  the  Ionic  columns  have  a 
swell  or  belly  of  T^  their  diameter. 

Entasis.  The  taper  on  these  columns  is  much  less  accentuated 
than  on  the  Doric  Order.  We  find  that  the  larger  diameter,  in  the 
middle,  is  one-seventh  more  than  the  smaller  diameter.  On  the 
Erechtheum  this  diminution  is  of  one-twelfth ;  on  the  Temple  of  Apollo 
Didymivus,  it  is  one-eighth ;  and  oh  the  little  Templeonthe  Ilissus,  it  is 
one-seventh.  An  entasis  or  curving  contour  of  the  shaft  exists  in  a 
very  delicate  and  subtle  form  in  the  Ionic  Order. 

Flutings.  Next  to  its  proportions,  the  distinguishing  feature  of 
the  shaft  of  this  Order  is  the  radically  different  character  of  fluting 
which  is  invariably  used  whenever  the  column  of  this  Order  is  so  orna- 
mented. While  in  the  examples  of  the  Greek  Doric  work  it  is  found 
that  the  later  columns  are  almost  invariably  fluted,  and  it  is  only  the 


204 


PLATE  XLI. 

< A.  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XLI.) 


205 


117 


earlier  examples  which  were  occasionally  left  smooth  and  plain,  with 
the  introduction  of  the  Ionic  column  the  question  of  fluting  the  shaft 
seems  to  have  been  left  more  or  less  to  the  discretion  of  the  designer. 
There  are  late  instances  where  this  column  has  been  left  plain  and 
unornamented,  quite  as  often  as  early  ones  in  which  the  fluting  first 
peculiar  to  this  Order  is  used.  There  are  generally  twenty-four  chan- 
nels or  flutes — four  more  than  in  the  Doric  Order;  and  their  section  is 
as  shown  in  Fig.  56,  mach  deeper  and  approaching  a  half-circle  in 
outline,  while  the  channels  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  ridge 
or  "fillet,"  a  part  of  the  surface  of  the  column  shaft  itself.  We  have 

already    traced    the   probable 

growth   and    derivation  of  these 
channels  in  Fig.  49. 

Bases,  Ionic  and  Attic.  The 
Ionic  and  Corinthian  columns, 
being  lighter,  more  elaborate  in 
treatment,  more  refined  in  prin- 
ciple, and  giving  less  of  an  effect 
of  stability,  seemed,  unlike  the 
earlier  Doric,  to  require  a  base 
in  order  to  give  some  apparent 
strength  to  the  column  as  a  sup- 
porting member.  Otherwise  the 
wide  spacing  of  these  columns, 
and  the  thinness  of  their  shafts, 
would  not  satisfy  the  eye  of  the 
beholder.  The  base,  besides  ful- 
filling its  purpose  as  an  ornamental  member,  renders  it  apparent 
that  a  larger  bearing  surface  is  given  the  column,  and  that  the  weight 
it  carries  is  thus  distributed  over  a  larger  area  of  support. 

A  base  of  the  height  of  one  module,  or  one  half-diameter,  is  there- 
fore always  used  with  this  column.  There  are  two  sorts  of  bases, 
easily  distinguished  by  the  form  of  their  mouldings: 

The  Ionic  base  is  composed  of  a  plinth  supporting  two  astragals, 
and  two  scotias  accompanying  these  two  astragals,  with  fillets  and  a 
torus  moulding.  In  Asia  Minor,  this  base  is  subjected  to  considerable 
modifications. 

The  Attic  base  is   more  simple,  and  is  composed  of  a  torus 


Fig.  56.    Ionic  Fluting. 
(Part  plan  and  elevation.) 


207 


118 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


moulding,  a  scotia  with  two  fillets,  and  a  large  torus,  the  latter  resting 
directly  on  the  platform  or  steps  around  the  temple,  without  the 
intervening  square  plinth  (A,  Fig.  57). 

The  base  which  usually  appears  with  this  order  is  of  the  Attic 
variety,  circular  in  plan,  and  without  a  square  plinth  as  in  later  Roman 
usage,  with  the  exception  of  one  type,  that  in  the  Temple  of  Minerva 
Polias  at  Priene.  In  Fig.  57  are  shown  the  most  typical  variations  of 
Greek  Ionic  column  bases.  That  at  A,  taken  from  the  Erechtheum 
at  Athens,  is  generally  termed  the  "Attic  base",  from  the  fact  that  it 
was  most  highly  developed  in  Athens  and  the  neighboring  portions  of 


lONICGOLVMN-BASES 


Fig.  57.    Typical  Greek  Doric  Bases. 

the  state  of  Attica.  This  base  is  sometimes  varied  by  making  the 
lower  torus  very  small  in  height,  and  flattening  the  scotia,  as  in  Plate 
•XLII;  but  it  still  retains  the  characteristics  of  the  Attic  base.  The 
base  at  B,  Fig.  57,  is  the  only  instance  in  Greek  work  where  they  have 
employed  with  this  Order  a  plinth  square  in  plan  and  rectangular  in 
elevation.  The  example  shown  at  C,  Fig.  57,  is  taken  from  a  column 
at  Samos,  and  is  a  somewhat  unusual  form.  At  Ephesus  there  is  an 
example  of  the  use  of  the  Ionic  Order  where  the  base  of  the  column  is 
encircled  by  a  dado  carved  with  figures  of  considerable  relief.  The 
base  shown  at  D  is  from  the  Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Phigalia. 


208 


§3 

s  g 

2H 

«s 

®  o 

H 

w  ^ 
XI 


12 


^  o 


119 


ASSYRIAN' 


This  type,  as  well  as  the  accompanying  form  of  capital,  Fig.  64,  is 
somewhat  exceptional  in  Greek  work. 

The  Volutes.    The  strongest  characteristic  of  the  column  is  the 
volutes  which  ornament  the  capital. 

Various  theories  have  been  suggested 
as  to  the  derivation  of  the  decoration  of 
the  "volute"  face  or  roll,  a  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  Ionic  capital.  It  is  indu- 
bitable that  the  series  of  lines  enrolling 
themselves  into  a  spiral  form,  which  ap- 
pear upon  the  principal  faces  of  the  cap- 
ital and  make  up  the  end  of  the  rolls, 
was  for  a  long  time  a  favorite  motive 
with  early  peoples,  and  that  many  exam- 
ples are  found  in  the  works  of  Mycenaean 
art;  that  the  face  of  the  volute  very  nearly 
reproduces  the  natural  form  of  certain 
seashells;  and  that  the  same  spiral  mo- 
tive was  known  and  employed  by  al- 
most all  primitive  civilizations. 

The  Assyrians,  in  their  decorative 
embellishment  of  the  short  cross-bar  or 
wooden  cap  that  they  placed  upon  their 
columns,  succeeded  in  producing  a  rolled- 
up  decorative  member  that  may  have 
very  readily  formed  the  suggestion  for  the 
Greek  Ionic  capital.  (See  Fig.  58.) 

The  more  ancient  examples  of  the 
Ionic  capital  show  the  volute  projected 
in  such  an  extreme  degree  that  it  seems 
most  unlikely  that  this  decorative  Order 
could  have  been  developed  from  anything  else  than  a  wooden 
prototype,  as  such  a  form,  executed  in  stone  or  marble,  would 
seemingly  be  bound  to  split  off  under  the  load  of  the  entablature. 
The  sketch  in  Fig.  59  shows  how  this  form  of  cap  may  possibly  have 
been  suggested  by  the  Etruscan  custom  of  placing  a  wooden  cross-bar 
over  the  wood  column,  not  only  to  tie  it  together  and  prevent  it  from 
splitting,  but  also  to  assist  in  reducing  the  width  of  the  span  between 


CAPITAL/ 


Fig.  58.    Ionic  Capital  as 

Suggested  in  Assyrian 

Work. 


209 


120 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


supports,  as  well  as  to  increase  the  bearing  area  of  the  column — just 
as  the  horizontal  mouldings  of  the  base  suggest  a  double  structural 
purpose  in  binding  together  the  bottom  of  the  delicate  support,  and 
broadening  its  bearing  area.  The  projecting  parts  of  this  short  beam 
would  naturally  be  treated  in  some  decorative  manner,  and  so  the 
general  form  of  the  Ionic  volute  might  have  been  easily  produced. 
But  we  must  again  allow  that  in  its  introduction  to  Greece,  the  form  of 
the  Ionic  capital  was  so  materially  modified  that  it  has  little  close 
affinity  with  the  earlier  Mycenaean,  Assyrian,  or  Phoenician  motives. 
The  approximate  height  of  the  capital  is  a  little  less  than  one 

diameter. 

The  next  principal  feature 
of  this  Order,  and  the  one  that 
renders  the  column  distinctive  in 
itself,  is  that  the  capital  has  two 
separate  faces — one  in  plane  with 
the  frieze  above,  showing  the 
volute;  while  the  other,  at  right 
angles  to  this,  shows  the  end  of 
the  capital  or  roll  of  the  volute, 
as  may  be  seen  in  Figs.  60  and  61 . 
As  we  have  said,  the  capital 
of  the  Ionic  column  has  two  prin- 
cipal faces  and  two  lateral  or 
subordinate  ones.  The  principal 
faces  show  the  winding-up  of  the 
two  volutes,  or  the  eyes  formed 
by  the  band  laid  over  the  mould- 
ed capital,  which  suggests  in  front  elevation  a  cushion  with  two 
rolls  or  volutes,  one  at  each  side,  while  at  the  end  a  single  roll 
alone  is  seen.  This  band  or  cushion  comes  between  the  turned 
or  rounded  column  and  the  upper  member  of  the  capital,  which 
is  always  square  in  plan  (Fig.  61),  and  it  is  of  the  shape  of  the  echinus 
moulding  in  perpendicular  section,  the  latter  being  sometimes  plain 
but  more  generally  carved  or  decorated.  The  side  showing  the  volute, 
which  we  have  already  called  the  "face,"  is  always  in  the  same  plane 
as  the  architrave  and  frie/e  of  the  building,  and  facing  out  toward  the 
spectator;  the  opposite  face  is  precisely  like  it. 


-WOODEN*  TEMPLE 


Fig.  59!    Ionic  Capital  as  Suggested  in 
ii  Work. 


210 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


121 


Arrangement  of  Volutes  at  Corners  of  Buildings.  This  arrange- 
ment is  perfectly  adaptable  to  a  long  colonnade;  but  when  we  reach 
the  corner  of  the  building,  a  difficulty  at  once  presents  itself.  On  one 
side  or  the  other  this  capital  must  show  a  roll,  which  would  not  agree 
with  the  capitals  beside  it.  The  volute  which  distinguishes  the  Ionic 
capital  almost  prevents  its  use  at  the  angles  of  a  building,  inasmuch 


Fig.  60.    View  Showing  Two  Faces  of  Ionic  Capital. 

as  the  principal  face  is  always  shown  in  plane  with  the  architrave 
above,  and,  in  turning  the  corner  at  right  angles,  some  change  is  nec- 
essary in  order  to  bring  the  two  principal  faces  at  right  angles  to  each 
other.  The  Greeks  invented  two  methods  of  overcoming  this  diffi- 
culty. In  Fig.  62  are  shown  two  plans  of  Ionic  capitals  for  use  on  the 
corners  of  buildings.  The  first — an  exceptional  one — is  taken  from 


211 


122 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


Jhaft- 


Ixwe. 


61.    Ionic  Column. 


the  Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  at 
Phigalia,  where  all  four  sides  are 
alike,  and  the  volutes  coming  to- 
gether on  the  angle  are,  in  plan, 
bowed  out  on  each  corner*  so  as  to 
be  almost  back  to  back  at  the  ex- 
treme angle.  This  capital  is  shown 
in  elevation  in  Fig.  64.  The  other 
and  more  usual  method  was  to  place 
the  two  principal  faces  of  the  ordi- 
nary capital  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  the  volutes  on  the  outer  corner 
following  the  same  method  in  that 
one  angle  as  on  the  four  angles  of 
the  capital  just  described,  and  the 
two  volutes  at  the  other  ends  being 
kept  in  plane  with  the  architrave 
above.  This  also  brings  the  two 
rolls  or  lateral  faces  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  and  requires  a  certain 
dislocation  of  their  elements,  which 
may  be  better  seen  in  Fig.  63, 
where  two  capitals  from  the  Temple 
on  the  Ilissus  at  Athens  are  shown 
side  by  side,  one  of  these  being  that 
on  the  corner,  and  the  other  the 
ordinary  capital  of  the  colonnade. 
The  Greeks  themselves  seemed  to 
favor  this  latter  solution,  and  in 
most  instances  employed  this  scheme 
on  the  capitals  at  the  angles  of  their 
buildings.  Perhaps  this  was  partly 
because  it  allowed  them  the  use  of 
the  decorated  Ionic  form,  to  which 
they  were  especially  partial. 

The  Plain  Ionic  Capital.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  capital  used  with 
the  Athenian  Greek  Ionic  Orders, 


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123 


one  known  as  the  plain  and  the  other  as  the  decorated  or  orna- 
mented capital.  The  type  of  the  plain  capital  is  shown  in  Plate 
XLII,  at  a  large  size  and  with  the  necessary  constructive  measure- 


Fig.  62.    Examples  of  Doric  Corner  Capitals.    (Section  looking  up.) 

ments.  This  example  was  taken  from  the  four-columned  porch 
of  the  Temple  of  Nik6  Aptcros,  or  the  Wingless  Victory,  on  the 
Acropolis  at  Athens,  and  has  been  slightly  changed  from  the 
original  in  one  particular,  by  drawing  in  the  volute  eye  of  the 


EEGVLAfc-  CARS  « JKWEM1E  * 


Fig.  63.    Typical  Ionic  Corner  and  Regular  Capitals.    (Section  looking  up.) 

capital  slightly  toward  the  center  of  the  column  from  each  side,  thus 
doing  away  with  a  certain  awkwardness  in  the  extreme  projection 
(when  seen  from  the  front)  of  the  volutes  in  the  original.  This  varia- 


215 


124 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


tion  is  only  of  three  parts,  but  it  better  fits  the  capital  for  more  general 
use.  The  variety  of  the  Attic  base  used  in  this  example,  is  shown  on 
the  same  plate.  The  roll  or  end  of  the  volute,  as  shown  in  this  plate, 
is  extremely  simple,  even  for  this  plain  type  of  capital ;  and  it  is  often 
decorated  or  carved  with  some  simple  leaf  ornament,  as  is  shown  in 
Plate  XLVI  and  Figs.  65  and  66. 

The  column  used  with  the  plain  Greek  Ionic  capital  is  shorter  in 
proportion  than  the  example  used  with  the  ornamented  capital  from 

the  Erechtheum.  Iji  the  Temple 
on  the  Ilissus  at  Athens,  the  col- 
umn in  this  instance  being  only 
about  14^  feet  high,  the  form  of 
capital  and  proportioning  of  col- 
umn more  nearly  approach  the 
type  afterwards  adopted  as  dis- 
tinctively Roman.  Other  Greek 
variations  of  a  similar  form  are 
those  used  in  the  Temple  of  Apol- 
lo Didymseus,  near  Miletus,  and 
the  Aqueduct  of  Hadrian  at  Ath- 
ens (Fig.  65) ;  and  in  the  Temple 
of  Minerva  Polias  at  Priene,  and 
the  Ionic  capital  from  Athens, 
shown  together  in  the  same  illus- 
tration (Fig.  66).  In  these  two 
plates  the  upper  half  of  the  plan  belongs,  in  each  instance,  to  the  cap 
shown  in  one-half  front  and  one-half  end  elevation  above  it,  while 
the  lower  half  of  the  plan  belongs  to  the  capital  shown  in  the  same 
manner  below. 

The  Decorated  Ionic  Capital.  The  decorated  capital  has,  in 
addition  to  the  echinus  moulding  below  the  band  forming  the  volutes 
and  treated  with  an  egg-and-dart,  a  frieze  or  necking  carved  with  a 
honeysuckle  ornament,  separating  the  capital  from  the  fluted  shaft 
of  the  column,  and  defined  at  the  bottom  by  an  astragal  moulding. 
This  necking  is  elaborately  carved  with  some  such  ornament  as  that 
shown  on  Plate  XLIII,  in  which  this  capital  is  drawn  out  at  a  large 
size  with  constructional  figures.  This  is  the  capital  from  the  Portico 
of  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  or  the  North  Porch  of  the  Erechtheum 


Fig.  64.    Ionic  Column  from  Temple 
of  Apollo  Epicm'ius  at  Phigalia. 


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21? 


3   . 

"5    f' 

&  ° 

Cv     qj 
O  ^3 

13 
il 

o-S 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


125 


at  Athens.  This  porch  is  shown  at  a  large  size  in  Plate  XLIV.  It  is 
these  columns  which  we  have  already  mentioned  as  swelling  out  y^T 
of  their  diameter  before  tapering  to  the  neck.  The  doorway  of  this 
porch  is  drawn  out  more  particularly  in  Figs.  83  and  84. 

In  the  drawing  of  this  capital  in  Plate  XLIII,  it  will  be  noticed 


Fig.  65.    Typical  Decorations  of 
Ionic  Capital. 


Pig.  66.    Typical  Decorations  of 
Ionic  Capital. 


that  the  face  of  the  volute  is  much  more  elaborately  moulded  than  the 
simpler  example  shown  in  Plate  XLII,  and  has  in  addition  an  entirely 
new  set  of  members  in  the  center  of  its  flattened  scotia,  while  all  its 
parts  are  more  elaborately  and  finely  cut.  An  ornamental  torus,  which 
is  not  shown  in  other  types  of  Greek  Ionic  capitals,  also  appears  above 
the  egg-and-dart  and  below  the  band  moulding.  The  square  abacus 


219 


126  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


above  the  band  of  this  capital  is  invariably  carved  in  the  ornamental 
type,  while  in  the  plain  capital  it  is  sometimes  left  unadorned.  This 
capital,  with  necking,  should  be  used  only  with  a  taller  and  more 
slender  shaft  than  the  other  type  requires. 

The  ornamented  Ionic  capital  may  be  considered  as  the  more  dis- 
tinctively Greek,  inasmuch  as  the  Romans,  in  adopting  the  Ionic  col- 
umn and  its  capital,  followed  out  more  closely  the  idea  shown  in  the 
simpler  type,  while  the  Greeks  themselves  have  proclaimed  their 
partiality  for  the  more  decorated  form  by  using  it  in  the  most  elabo- 
rate single  temple  which  they  have  left  us,  that  of  the  Erechtheum. 

General  Type  of  Greek  Ionic  Order.  By  referring  to  Plate  XLI 
and  Fig.  50,  the  description  of  this  order  can  be  better  comprehended. 
The  architrave  produces  an  entirely  different  effect  from  the  one  used 
with  the  Doric  Order,  and,  while  left  plain  in  some  cases,  it  is  ordinarily 
divided  into  two  or  three  bands  by  small  horizontal  projections,  and  is 
crowned  with  various  mouldings,  often  ornamented  with  the  egg-and- 
dart  or  with  reel  and  bead.  The  ordinary  measure  of  the  height  of 
the  architrave  is  about  equal  to  three-fourths  of  the  column  diameter. 
The  frieze,  a  little  less  high  than  the  architrave,  is,  as  before,  crowned 
with  ornate  cornice  mouldings.  These  friezes  are  merely  plain  sur- 
faces, and  in  the  Greek  Orders  are  more  often  enriched  by  carving. 
If  decorated,  it  is  generally  with  bas-reliefs  in  the  nature  of  a  procession 
of  some  sort,  continuing  without  interruption  all  around  the  entablature 
(Fig.  77).  The  cornice  is  simpler  and  even  lighter  in  proportion  than 
that  of  the  Doric  Order,  on  account  of  the  added  height  of  the  column ; 
while  it  is  composed  entirely  of  simple  bands  of  mouldings.  Indeed, 
throughout  the  entablature  of  this  Order,  it  is  the  horizontal  lines 
that  are  emphasized. 

The  Ionic  cornice  is  less  than  one  diameter  in  height,  the  corona 
projecting  over  the  line  of  the  frieze  by  a  distance  equivalent  to  the 
height  of  the  cornice.  It  possesses  an  inclined  soffit  supported  by  a 
bed-mould  composed  of  different  members,  sometimes  ornamented 
with  the  egg-and-dart,  and  in  late  work  often  contains  an  additional 
course  of  dentils  or  brackets.  It  is  surmounted  by  other  mouldings, 
and  the  cornice  is  ended  by  a  cyma  especially  decorated  with  a  honey- 
suckle ornament  and  with  heads  of  lions  serving  as  waterspouts.  The 
mean  height  of  the  cornice  is  about  one-quarter  that  of  the  whole  en- 


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OF  M1NERV\  POLIAS 


PLATE  XLIV. 

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STUDY  OP  THE  ORDERS 


127 


tablature  which  bears  a  ratio  to  the  height  of  the  column  of  about 
2  to  9,  or  a  little  more  than  two  diameters. 

The  Erechtheum.  The  Erechtheum  or  Triple  Temple  at  Athens 
is  an  exceptional  plan  in  Greek  work,  and  requires  special  explanation. 
This  Triple  Temple,  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the  Acropolis,  was 
devoted  to  the  worship  of  three  separate  deities.  The  principal  front, 
a  six-column  porch,  was  termed 
the  Temple  of  Erechtheus,  and 
was  connected  through  the  pas- 
sageway at  the  side  (see  plan,  Fig. 
67)  with  the  Temple  of  Minerva 
Polias,  which  had  its  entrance  or 
portico  at  the  side  towards  the 
north.  To  this  porch  belongs  the 
doorway  that  is  separately  de- 
scribed. Opposite  this  portico, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  building 


and  facing  towards  the  Parthe- 
non, is  the  Tribune  or  Porch  of 
the  Caryatides,  (Fig.  80)  or  the 
Temple  of  Pandrosus.  The  cary- 
atides are  placed  on  a  very  high 
stylobate,  or  basement,  beautifully  moulded  and  carved.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  main  body  of  the  building  itself,  leaving  out  these 
north  and  south  porches,  follows  the  same  simple  plan  whose  de- 
velopment we  have  already  traced;  and  it  is  only  in  viewing  the  ex- 
terior of  the  building  (Fig.  68),  that  any  confusion  on  this  point 
might  arise. 

There  are  no  less  than  three  different  sets  of  columns  of  the  Ionic 
Order  employed  on  this  building.  The  principal  one  is  at  the  east  end 
or  front,  with  a  subsidiary  column  of  almost  the  same  height  on  the 
porch  of  Minerva  Polias,  while  the  west  or  rear  wall  of  the  building  is 
decorated  with  four  attached  Ionic  columns  of  the  same  order  in  antis, 
these  being  of  a  still  smaller  size  and  having  windows  placed  in  the 
spaces  between  them.  This  building  may  be  considered  as  the  most 
pretentious  and  highly  enriched  example  of  Greek  temple  architecture; 
combining,  as  it  does,  the  use  of  the  graceful  Ionic  Order  in  what  was  to 
the  Greeks  its  most  ornamented  and  highest  developed  form,  with  the 


Fig.  67.    Plan  of  Erechtheum. 


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STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  129 

addition  of  the  beautiful  and  unique  Porch  of  the  Caryatides.  The 
combination  in  one  group  of  these  three  temples  was  evidently  consid- 
ered by  their  creators  as  a  tour  de  force;  while  the  way  in  which  the 
portico  to  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias  is  arranged — so  as  to  place 
its  center  on  the  axis  of  the  door  to  this  temple  and  still  tie  it  in  to  the 
whole  composition,  even  though  it  projects  beyond  the  end  of  the  body 
of  the  building — is  a  naive  and  most  successfully  natural  solution  of 
the  problem. 

We  have  already  seen  that  this  building,  the  Erechtheum,  fur- 
nishes two,  or  more  properly  three,  uses  of  the  column  of  this  Order. 
On  the  four-columned  North  Porch  of  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias 
(Fig.  68)  and  on  the  six-columned  main  entrance  to  the  Temple  of  the 
Erechtheum  at  the  east,  very  similar  forms  of  the  capital  are  employed. 
These  two  different  columns,  the  first  a  little  over  twenty-five  and  the 
second  a  little  over  twenty-one  feet  in  height,  are  placed  under  the 
same  entablature,  and  should  be  accepted  as  the  highest  development 
of  the  ornamented  Greek  Ionic  form.  Besides  this,  a  smaller  column 
of  the  same  type  is  used  at  the  west  end  between  the  window  openings, 
but  attached  to  the  wall  behind  it. 

The  entablature  used  with  the  decorated  Ionic  capital  on  the 
Erechtheum  is  shown  in  Plate  XLV,  where  the  beautiful  proportions 
of  its  various  horizontal  parts  and  mouldings  may  be  studied  carefully. 
The  use  of  carved  or  ornamented  members  in  this  cornice  is  especially 
notable,  from  the  restraint  employed  in  placing  them  at  the  exact 
points  where  this  enriched  line  demarks  most  plainly  the  main  horizon- 
tal divisions  of  the  entablature  and  strengthens  the  more  important 
shadows  cast  by  the  moulded  sections.  The  carved  bed-mould  of 
the  cornice,  and  the  ornamented  member  of  the  crowning  part  of  the 
architrave,  are  shown  at  a  large  size  in  A  and  B ;  while  at  C  are  given 
the  carved  members  of  the  anta  used  with  the  column,  the  base  of 
which  is  shown  at  D,  opposite  the  enlarged  section  of  the  Attic  base 
of  the  Erechtheum  columns  at  E.  This  plate  will  indicate  the  great 
refinement  and  purity -of  the  best  type  of  ornamental  Greek  carved 
mouldings,  and  will  also  show  how  closely  the  character  of  the  carving 
follows  and  emphasizes  the  contour  of  the  moulded  section  itself. 
Various  Examples  of  the  Ionic  Order.  There  are  many  types  of 
the  Ionic  Order  where  the  capitals  are  of  different  characters,  and  a 
short  description  of  each  will  be  found  necessary  in  order  to  compre- 


227 


130  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

hend,  in  even  a  rapid  fashion,  the  character  which  is  given  to  these 
designs  and  details,  and  the  different  elements  that  compose  the  most 
beautiful  examples.  At  Athens,  and  particularly  in  the  Temple  of 
the  Wingless  Victory  (Plate  XLII),  the  mouldings  forming  the  roll 
of  the  volute  are  divided  and  bent  towards  the  axis  of  the  capital. 
At  Phigalia  (Fig.  64),  the  volutes,  being  larger  and  simpler  and  with 
much  projection,  are  rejoined  to  each  other  about  the  axis.  In  Asia 
Minor,  the  volutes  are  in  general  relieved  by  absolutely  horizontal 
mouldings  (Fig.  65).  These  three  general  types  will  show  the  variety 
of  the  different  capitals  used  in  the  Greek  Ionic  Order.  In  the  old 
examples  the  volutes  were  given  more  projection,  and  afterwards 
apparently  reduced  on  account  of  exigencies  of  construction.  They 
are  also  more  developed  or  refined  in  treatment  in  later  Orders,  and 
the  eye  of  the  volute  is  ordinarily  placed  in  plane  with  the  line  of  the 
shaft.  It  is  not  very  late  in  Italy  when  the  eyes  of  the  volutes  are 
placed  still  nearer  each  other,  and  we  find  them  coming  even  inside  of 
this  line. 

Temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at  Priene.  There  is  a  rather  individual 
form  of  Greek  Ionic  Order  employed  in  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias 
at  Priene,  which  has  been  drawn  out  in  Plate  XL VI.  The  base  of  this 
Order  we  have  already  mentioned,  but  the  capital  is  unlike  any  exam- 
ple we  have  yet  seen.  It  is  a  version  of  the  simple  or  plain  Greek 
Ionic,  but  the  designer  was  not  satisfied  by  showing  one-half  of  his 
volute  on  the  internal  angle  of  the  capital,  as  in  the  corner  capital  from 
the  Temple  on  the  Ilissus  at  Athens,  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  62,  which 
should  be  compared  with  the  plan  of  the  capital  on  this  plate.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  in  order  to  show  the  complete  volute  in  this  angle  it 
was  necessary  to  throw  out  the  roll  at  the  back  of  the  capital,  opening 
the  space  between  it  and  the  ornamented  egg-and-dart  of  the  echinus 
moulding  which  follows  in  plan  the  circular  shape  of  the  shaft. 
This  would  produce  a  certain  awkwardness  of  the  soffit,  seen  when 
looking  up  at  the  capital  from  the  inside  of  the  porch,  which  would 
seemingly  offset  the  advantage  gained  by  completing  the  circle  of  the 
two  volutes  shown  on  this  internal  angle.  It  also  necessitates  the  pe- 
culiar shape  of  abacus  on  that  corner,  completed  in  plan  in  Plate 
XLVI  by  the  dotted  lines.  To  be  sure,  this  is  much  more  logical  in 
itself  than  breaking  out  the  abacus  on  the  opposite  exterior  angle  over 
the  corner  volute;  but  it  is  questionable  if  the  effects  in  elevation 


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STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  131 

shown  in  the  capital  immediately  above  the  plan  would  be  as  happy 
or  natural  as  in  the  other  method,  shown  in  the  example  from  the 
Temple  on  the  Ilissus  already  mentioned. 

The  entablature  of  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at  Priene  is 
more  elaborate  than  that  shown  in  the  Order  on  Plate  XLI,  and  more 
nearly  approaches  the  later  Roman  form.  We  see  here  an  instance  of 
the  use  of  a  dentil  course  in  the  bed-mould  of  the  cornice,  which  partakes 
somewhat,  by  its  extreme  projection,  of  the  nature  of  the  console  or 
bracket,  and  which  may  have  given  to  the  Romans  the  idea  they  after- 
wards developed.  The  treatment  of  the  soffit  shown  in  the  small  plan 
below  is  very  similar  to  that  between  the  corner  mutules  of  the  Greek 
Doric  building.  The  cornice  and  crowning  mouldings,  shown  at  the 
right-hand  upper  corner  of  this  plate  at  A,  are  taken  from  the  gable  or 
pediment  of  the  building.  This  plate  further  shows  the  ornamented 
soffit  of  the  architrave  in  the  section  through  the  entablature  given 
at  the  right,  which  contains  a  small  sunk  panel  ornamented  with  a 
carved  moulding,  this  panel,  however,  being  very  narrow.  In  the 
sections  shown  on  this  plate,  the  stones  hatched  with  a  lighter  line  are 
restored  and  conjectural. 

Another  authority  shows  this  Order  without  the  frieze,  and  places 
the  brackets  or  dentils  directly  upon  the  crowning  member  of  the 
architrave.  A  method  for  determining  the  centers  required  to  draw 
out  the  volute  of  the  Greek  Ionic  capital,  is  shown  in  the  lower  right- 
hand  corner  of  the  plate. 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER 

The  Greeks  invented,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  another 
Order — the  Corinthian.  In  the  early  examples  of  this  Order  which 
remain,  wre  see  evidences  of  the  same  processes  of  experimentation  as 
tended  to  the  development  of  the  Doric  Order,  although  it  remained 
for  the  later  Romans  to  give  this  type  its  most  definite  character. 
These  Orders  may  be  considered  as  successive  steps  in  enriching 
and  refining  the  effect  of  the  column  and  entablature,  along  with 
their  accompanying  mouldings. 

The  Corinthian  Order  is  distinguished  from  the  other  Orders  by 
its  principal  characteristic,  the  capital,  which  is  formed  of  two  rows  of 
acanthus  leaves  placed  against  a  round  vase  or  bracket,  and  which, 


231 


132 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


with  the  abacus  supported  on  the  angles  by  volutes,  is  radically  differ- 
ent from  anything  we  have  before  seen. 

Origin  of  the  Corinthian  Order.  As  the  importation  from  other 
countries  of  the  ideas  on  which  the  two  first  Greek  Orders,  especially 
the  Doric,  were  founded,  has  been  fairly  proved,  it  seems  less  un- 
reasonable to  believe  that  the  idea  of  the  Corinthian  capital  was  also 
taken  from  Egypt,  although  the  Greeks  attribute  its  invention  to  an 
artist  of  their  own  country,  Callimachus,  an  architect,  painter,  and 
sculptor,  who  exercised  his  art  about  the  year  437  B.  C. 

Vitruvius  tells  a  legend  or  story  of  the  invention  of  the  Corinthian 

capital.  A  young  girl  of  Corinth 
having  died,  her  nurse  placed  in 
the  tomb  a  bracket  on  which  were 
set  objects  most  dear  to  her  mis- 
tress, and  for  protection  from  the 
rain  she  also  placed  a  large  tile  ' 
over  the  bracket.  A  wild  acan- 
thus, whose  roots  were  under- 
neath the  offering,  spread  its 
leaves  around  the  outline  until 
the  tile  curved  their  tops  over  and 
outward.  Callimachus,  finding 
the  forms  produced  by  this  hap- 
pening most  decorative,  applied 
them  to  his  creation  of  a  new  Order  of  architecture. 

This  capital  was  more  probably  developed  from  the  lotus  bell- 
shaped  Egyptian  form,  the  principal  difference  between  the  two  being 
in  their  height  and  proportions.  In  both  we  have  a  simple  bell-shaped 
form  ornamented  by  local  varieties  of  leafage,  the  one  taken  from  the 
lotus  plant,  and  the  other  from  the  more  spiny  acanthus. 

In  the  Temple  of  the  Winds,  the  capital  shows  a  combination  of 
what  is  known  as  the  "water  leaf"  with  Greek  acanthus  leaves  cover- 
ing the  lower  portion  of  the  capital  and  superposed  upon  their  face. 
This  water  leaf  suggests  to  a  considerable  extent  the  form  of  lotus 
used  by  the  Egyptians  in  the  capitals  of  some  of  their  columns.  The 
derivation  of  the  spinals  or  volutes,  used  as  they  are  on  the  angles  of 
this  capital,  is  not  so  obvious. 

It  has  also  been  suggested  that  this  form  of  capital  came  from 


Fig.  69. 


232 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


133 


the  custom  of  ornamenting,  on  gala  occasions,  the  capitals  of  the 
Ionic  column  with  flowers  and  foliage,  which  we  know  were  often 
festooned  and  draped  between  and  around  these  columns.  It  is  more 
probable,  however,  that  this  capital  may  have  been  suggested  by  the 
decorated  Greek  Ionic  form;  the  decoration  with  leafage  of  the  bell- 
shaped  portion  being  merely  an  exaggeration  of  the  decorated  necking 
employed  in  some  examples  of  the  use  of  the  Ionic  Order.  The 
leaves  in  the  capital  are  frequently  drawn  in  the  conventional  outline 
manner  shown  in  Plate  XLVII,  merely  for  ease  in  rendering;  but 
they  should  actually  be  treated 
after  the  spiny  fashion  of  the 
acanthus  leaf,  shown  in  Fig.  09. 

Fundamental  Rule  to  be  Ob- 
served in  Making  the  Corinthian 
Capital.  It  is  most  important,  in 
order  to  obtain  the  best  effect 
with  the  Corinthian  capital,  that 
the  leafage  and  growth  of  the 
leaves,  and  the  form  of  the  bell, 
should  follow  sharply  and  con- 
tinue the  outline  of  the  column 
shaft  up  to  the  point  where  they 
are  allowed  to  curve  off  under  the 
volutes  and  abacus  of  the  capital. 
This  curve  in  itself  should  be 
carefully  arranged  so  that  its  out- 
line will  suggest  the  firm  support 
that  is  essential  in  order  to  obtain 
the  best  effect.  If  the  leaves  project  beyond  the  line  of  the  shaft  at 
the  bottom  of  the  capital,  the  outline  is  bulging,  unnatural,  and  most 
unpleasant  to  the  eye. 

Examples  of  Corinthian  Capitals.  The  Corinthian  order  offers 
in  Greece  but  a  very  small  number  of  different  types.  We  find  that 
Ictinus  used  this  order  in  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Bassae  or  Phigalia 
about  431  B.  C.,  for  one  isolated  column  placed  between  two  shafts 
of  the  Ionic  order;  and  therefore  this  instance,  except  for  the  interest 
given  by  the  details  of  the  capital,  is  of  little  value.  The  abacus  of 
this  capital,  with  its  wide,  plain  face  ornamented  with  a  geometrical 


Fig.  70.    Capital  from  Temple  of  Apollo 
at  Pbigalia. 


233 


134 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


unnnnnnmf 


design  picked  out  in  color,  is  very  crude  in  treatment;  and  the  fluting 
ends  at  the  neck — as  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  Fig.  70 — in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  on  the  column  of  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates.  The 
capital  from  the  Temple  of  Apollo  Didymaeus  at  Miletus,  an  Ionic 
temple,  is  shown  in  Fig.  71,  and  is  a  much  more  refined  example  of  a 
very  similar  Corinthian  treatment,  but  showing  that  a  more  definite 
form  is  here  assumed.  In  this  example,  the  rather  peculiar  treatment 
of  the  abacus  on  the  four  corner  angles  should  be  noted.  \Ve  also  find 
that  the  Corinthian  Order  was  employed  upon  the  half-columns  attach- 
ed to  the  interior  wall  of  the  Phil- 
ippeion  at  Olympia,  of  the  date 
of  338  B.  C. 

Besides  these  Greek  uses  of 
the  Corinthian  capital,  two  of 
which  are  shown  in  both  plan  and 
elevation  in  Figs.  70  and  71,  there 
are  but  three  others,  and  these 
all  well  known  and  more  perfect, 
if  widely  different,  examples — the 
Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates 
at  Athens,  B.  C.  335;  the  column 
from  the  porch  of  the  Tower  of 
the  Winds,  B.C.  100-35;  and, 
the  most  perfect  of  all,  that  of  the 
Tholos  at  Epidauros,  belonging 
to  the  4th  century  B.  C.,  and  at- 
tributed to  Polycleitus  the  young- 
er. This  capital,  while  the  most  perfect,  is  also  the  earliest  known 
example  of  the  Corinthian  column  employed  under  an  entablature. 
The  Order  used  in  the  magnificent  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Athens, 
while  Greek  in  design,  was  finished  under  the  influence  of  the  Roman 
occupancy  of  Greece,  being  completed  by  Hadrian  in  117  A.  D.,  and 
is  in  many  ways  more  closely  allied  with  the  later  form  of  the  Corin- 
thian capital  as  developed  by  the  Romans  than  it  is  with  any  of  the  pure 
Greek  examples,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  one  at  Epidauros. 
The  Corinthian  Order  was  left  in  a  very  undeveloped  state  by  the 
Greeks,  and  the  three  instances  just  named  are  the  only  ones  that  may 
be  considered  as  presenting  it  in  anywhere  near  a  complete  and  definite 


Fig.  71.    Capital  from  Temple  of  Apollo 
Dldymaeus,  Miletus. 


234 


i 

a 

<  _/ 

it 


I! 


.=  _ 


=  i 

i,  -5 


£   S 

rt 

1 


Fig.  7'2.    Tower  of   the  Winds,  Athens. 


136 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


form.  The  columns  of  these  three  examples  are  shown  at  their  full 
height  in  Plate  XL VIII,  where  they  are  arranged  so  as  to  be  easily 
compared  for  the  differences  in  the  proportions  of  the  shafts  and  their 
entasis,  as  well  as  for  the  purpose  of  contrasting  the  different  Greek 
types  of  the  capital  itself.  In  all  three,  the  shaft  of  the  column  is 
fluted;  and  in  only  one — that  of  the  Temple  of  the  Winds — is  it  left 
without  a  base,  the  other  two  showing  a  variation  of  the  "Attic"  base. 
These  Orders  must  be  separately  described,  inasmuch  as  there  are 
certain  peculiarities  in  each  that  may  be  attributed  in  part  to  the  in- 
dividual requirements  of  the  separate  problems  involved. 

Tower  of  the  Winds.  The  cu- 
rious specimen  of  the  Corinthian 
Order  offered  by  the  variation  used 
on  the  Tower  of  the  Winds  at 
Athens  (Fig.  72),  is  well  worthy  of 
study.  The  column,  while  of  the 
three  examples  just  mentioned  the 
latest  in  date,  is  still  the  crudest  in 
form,  the  other  two  being  much 
more  refined  and  graceful  in  type. 
In  entasis,  and  in  treatment  of  shaft 
and  base,  it  follows  very  closely  the 
Greek  Doric  method,  beginning  to 
taper  from  the  start,  as  is  elsewhere 
more  fully  shown  in  describing  the 


tf  OR 


KETCH 
CAPITAL/ 


Fig.  73.  Corinthian  Capital  from  Tower  entasis  of  that  Order,  and  with  the 

flutes   running   directly   down    into 

the  platform  on  which  it  is  set;  but  the  shaft  is  itself  more  slender, 
being  eight  and  one-quarter  diameters  in  height,  including  the  capital. 
Besides  the  column  shown  in  Plate  XLVIII,  a  perspective  of  the  cap- 
ital is  shown  in  Fig.  73,  while  the  interesting  acanthus  leaf  embellish- 
ing it  is  drawn  out  at  a  larger  scale  in  Fig.  69.  Fig.  74  displays.the 
entire  tower,  along  with  the  unusual  porch  usage  of  the  columns,  the 
first  Classic  instance  of  their  employment  after  this  modern  fashion. 
Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates.  The  details  given  in  Plate 
XLIX  are  taken  from  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates  at 
Athens,  an  example  of  the  purest  Greek  art,  and  the  most  interesting 
which  we  can  find  of  a  Corinthian  order  employed  on  an  exterior. 


236 


Fig.  74.    Restoration  of  Tower  of  the  Winds,  Athens. 


Fig.  75.    OhoraKlc  Monument  of  Lyslrrates,  Athens.  Restored. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


139 


The  circular  monument  which  we  call  the  Choragic  Monument  of 
Lysicrates  is  better  displayed  in  its  entirety  in  Figs.  75  and  76.  There 
are  three  steps,  each  of  very  slight  projection,  at  the  base  of  this  monu- 


Fig.  76.    Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates. 

ment,  in  addition  to  those  shown.  This  may  hardly  be  considered 
as  a  wholly  satisfactory  instance  of  the  Greek  use  of  the  Corinthian 
Order,  although  it  is  the  most  perfect  extant  example.  However,  the 
columns — attached  as  they  are  to  a  blank  wall,  more  after  the  fashion 


239 


140 


which  the  Romans  afterward  adopted  in  their  Orders — the  circular 
plan,  and  the  small  scale — the  tower  itself  being  only  about  seven  feet 
in  diameter — render  it  very  imperfect  for  our  purpose,  considering  it 
from  any  standpoint.  The  details  of  this  monument  are  better  shown 
in  Plate  XLIX,  where  the  detail  of  the  capital  may  be  studied  with 
more  particularity.  The  entablature  follows  closely  the  type  shown  in 
Fig.  50,  and  includes  a  course  of  dentils,  but  lacks  the  crowning 
cymatium  of  the  Order  Plate,  its  place  being  taken  by  a  course  of 
acroteria,  forming  a  "cheneau"  or  cresting  around  the  top  of  the  crown- 
ing member.  The  three  fascias  or  faces  of  the  architrave,  as  shown 
on  the  corner,  are  treated  in  a  rather  suggestive  and  unusual  fashion. 
The  beautiful  and  richly  foliated  crowning  ornament  of  the  monument 
is  shown  on  this  plate  at  a  larger  size,  while  the  graceful  acanthus 
ornament  flowing  down  the  roof  and  leading  up  to  this  central  feature 
is  shown  in  direct  elevation  as  well  as  in  plan  and  section.  The 
"running  dog"  or  wave  ornament  placed  on  the  roof  above  and  inside  of 
the  course  of  acroteria,  is  also  shown  in  detail. 

This  monument  was  probably  crowned  with  the  emblematic 
tripod  of  the  Choragus,  executed  in  metal  (the  tripod  is  repeated  in  the 
wall  frieze),  and  with  one  or  two  human  figures,  while  the  entablature 
frieze  was  ornamented  in  the  fashion  shown  in  the  restoration  (Fig.  77). 
The  column  in  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates  has  twenty-four  flutes; 
its  height  is  about  eleven  and  one-half  feet,  and  it  is  a  little  more  than 
ten  times  its  diameter,  the  capital  being  one  and  two-tenths  diameters 
in  height.  The  entablature  is  a  little  less  than  one-fifth  the  total  height 
of  this  Order,  while  the  base  in  this  particular  example  is  evidently  so 
much  influenced  by  its  connection  with  the  blank  wall  behind,  that  it 
can  hardly  be  considered  as  typical,  although  it  varies  but  little 
from  that  shown  in  the  Corinthian  Order  Plate.  The  column  is  set 
upon  a  continuous  base  or  step  with  a  moulded,  retreating  face  which 
is  evidently  intended  to  offset  the  projection  of  the  belt  course  beneath. 
The  shaft  of  this  column  is  tapered  more  nearly  after  the  Roman 
fashion,  inasmuch  as,  before  the  entasis  begins,  it  is  straight  for  some 
distance  above  the  base  moulding. 

The  Tholos  at  Epidauros.  In  Plate  L  both  the  exterior  and 
interior  treatment  of  the  Tholos  at  Fpidauros  are  shown  in  detail. 
We  again  find  that  this  instance  of  the  use  of  the  Corinthian  Orders 
must  be  taken  as  a  most  beautiful  and  individual  example.  The 


240 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


141 


treatment  of  the  entire  entablature  is  evidently  strongly  influenced  by 
its  location  on  the  interior  of  the  building.  While  the  architrave  has 
not  been  varied  much  from  the  usual  type,  the  frieze  is  shown  as  a 
delicate  ogee  moulding,  and  the  crowning  member  or  cornice  partakes 


Fig.  77.    Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  Athens,  Upper  Part  Restored. 

more  of  the  nature  of  the  dado  or  pedestal  cap  which  we  afterwards 
find  used  by  the  Romans,  than  the  usual  entablature-cornice.  This 
column,  as  well  as  that  of  Lysicrates,  has  twenty-four  flutes  separated 
from  each  other  by  the  now  customary  fillet,  and  is  eight  and  one-half 
diameters  in  height;  the  capital  being  exactly  one  diameter  high, 
above  the  top  of  the  astragal  moulding. 


241 


142 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


Not  the  least  interesting  part  of  this  building  is  the  form  of  the 
Greek  Doric  Order  which  we  find  here  used.  Belonging  to  this  late 
period,  it  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  a  refinement  upon  this  Order, 
even  as  used  in  the  Parthenon.  It  is  certainly  quite  as  refined  an 
instance,  while  the  ornamented  and  less  severe  character  which  it  is 
here  given  is  commendable,  considering  the  use  of  the  columns  on  a 
building  of  circular  plan  (Fig.  78).  The  crowning  cheneau  (Plate  L), 
with  the  lion's  head  for  the  waterspout,  is  unusually  beautiful;  while 
the  Greek  fret,  used  both  here  and  on  the  interior  entablature  of  the 


Fig.  78.    Plan  of  the  Tholos  at  Epidauros. 

building,  is  the  form  to  which  the  Greeks  themselves  are  most  partial 
and  which  they  evidently  considered  as  the  most  interesting  develop- 
ment of  this  purely  geometrical  ornament  to  which  they  had  attained. 
The  carving  of  the  separate  members,  from  the  interior  entablature, 
shown  in  detail  on  this  same  plate,  is  exceptionally  beautiful  and  pure 
in  its  type ;  while  the  running  dog,  taken  from  the  panel  in  the  soffit  of 
the  ambulatory  between  the  Corinthian  columns  and  the  wall  of  the 
building,  is  especially  interesting  in  its  sectional  treatment. 

The  column  here  employed  is  higher  than  in  the  earlier  examples, 
being  ten  diameters  in  height;  but  it  will  l>e  observed  that  most  of  this 


242 


Greek  Corinthian  Capital. 
From  the  Tholos,  Epidauros. 


Fig.  79. 
PLATE  XLVII. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XL VII.) 


843 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  143 

additional  height  is  taken  up  by  the  capital  itself,  while  the  height  of 
the  shaft  remains  practically  the  same. 

General  Type  of  Corinthian  Order.  The  shaft  of  the  Corinthian 
column  is  grooved  with  twenty-four  channels,  the  same  in  number  and 
in  shape  as  those  which  ornament  the  Ionic  column.  The  base  is 
also  the  same;  and  it  is  the  elevation  of  the  capital,  with  its  drawn-out 
narrow  form,  that  adds  apparent  height  to  the  shaft  and  makes  the 
Corinthian  column  appear  more  elegant. 

The  height  of  the  Corinthian  entablature  is  two  diameters  and 
one-half,  the  diameter  being,  as  always,  taken  at  the  bottom  of  the 
shaft.  These  proportions,  although  generally  admitted,  are  not 
invariable;  but  they  may  be  considered  as  a  mean,  founded  on  the 
examples  of  which  we  know,  although  they  are  admittedly  very  few 
in  number. 

The  entablature  differs  but  slightly  from  the  one  we  have  already 
seen  on  the  Ionic  Order  in  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at  Priene, 
shown  in  Plate  XL VI;  and  a  comparison  of  this  example  with  Plate 
XL VII  will  show  what  slight  change  has  been  made  from  this  cornice 
in  its  general  proportions. 

The  architrave  is  divided  into  three  bands  or  fascias,  and  the 
frieze  is  plain,  or  is  ornamented  with  detached  figures  sculptured  after 
a  naturalistic  fashion. 

The  proportions  of  the  cornice  to  the  entire  entablature  are 
somewhat  changed  from  the  typical  Ionic  form,  as  it  is  heavier  and 
more  in  the  relation  to  the  whole  that  it  afterwards  bore  in  Roman 
work.  The  dentil,  which  first  appeared  in  the  Ionic  cornice,  has  by 
now  attained  a  more  definite  denticular  expression,  and  we  find  this 
member  used  in  the  Corinthian  cornice  on  both  the  Temple  of  the 
Winds  and  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates.  The  Greeks  evidently  first 
used  the  regular  Ionic  entablature  with  this  new  capital;  but  the 
necessity  for  a  heavier  and  more  elaborate  cornice  to  go  with  it  was  at 
once  generally  apparent,  so  the  denticular  cornice,  which  had  been  tried 
a  few  times  with  the  regular  Ionic  column,  was  evidently  adopted  as 
more  appropriate  for  use  with  this  richer  Order,  And  hereafter  we 
find  that  the  denticular  cornice  is  rarely  used  with  the  Greek  Ionic 
order  within  Greece  itself. 

In  the  Order  (Fig.  79)  from  Asher  Benjamin,  is  a  detail  of  the 
Corinthian  capital  with  the  principal  dimensions  for  the  different  parts 


245 


144  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

of  the  Order  of  which  it  composes  a  part.  To  epitomize  the  study  of 
this  Order,  Plate  XLVIII  shows  in  a  sort  of  parallel  the  assembled 
three  most  curious  types  of  Corinthian  capitals  of  which  we  know. 
These  are  from  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  the  Porch  from  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds,  and  the  Capital  of  the  Tholos  at  Epidauros. 

It  is  in  the  Ionian  villages  of  Asia  Minor  that  the  Order  was  most 
used  for  the  decoration  of  the  porticos  and  cellas  of  temples;  and  the 
capital  from  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Athens  is  the  type  most  frequently 
used  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  Italy.  After  the  Roman  conquest  it  was 
frequently  employed;  and,  transplanted  to  Rome,  the  version  of  the 
Corinthian  Order  there  developed  met  with  the  greatest  favor. 

Caryatids.  The  Greeks,  in  place  of  columns,  occasionally  used 
the  figures  denominated  caryatids  for  the  support  of  their  entablatures, 
the  most  famous  example  of  which  is  the  porch  of  the  Triple  Temple 
of  the  Erechtheum  at  Athens.  It  is  possible  that  the  use  of  human 
figures  for  this  purpose  may  have  been  suggested  by  some  of  the  earlier 
Egyptian  piers  or  columns  carved  with  the  figures  of  kings  and 
gods. 

The  use  of  a  human  figure  in  the  place  of  a  column  to  support 
an  entablature,  may  be  considered  as  possibly  a  fourth  Greek  "Order." 
There  are  two  varieties  of  this  Order,  the  Persic  and  the  Caryatid. 

The  Persic  corresponds  to  the  Doric  column,  the  statue  of  a  man 
taking  the  place  of  the  shaft,  and  the  entablature  here  still  partakes 
of  the  Doric  character;  while  in  the  Caryatid  Order  the  column  is 
replaced  by  a  woman,  and  the  entablature  partakes  more  of  an  Ionic 
character. 

The  Persic  Order  was  employed  in  the  cella  of  the  gigantic  Tem- 
ple of  Zeus  at  Agrigentum;  and  it  seems  to  have  been  often  used  as 
the  second  Order  which  we  find  placed  over  the  column  in  the  center 
aisle  of  many  Greek  temples  to  support  the  entablature,  on  which  in 
turn  rested  the  covering  of  the  naos  or  nave. 

We  find  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  on  the  face  of  the  Erechtheum 
towards  the  Parthenon,  a  superb  example  of  the  Caryatid  order 
(Fig.  80).  This  is  the  only  instance  of  the  use  of  figures  to  replace 
columns  in  this  position,  where  they  take  the  place  of  a  principal  Order 
and  are  actually  placed  in  direct  comparison,  by  their  close  juxtaposi- 
tion, to  large  Ionic  shafts.  The  caryatids  are  kept  in  scale  with  the 
building  and  surroundings,  and  still  attain  the  requisite  height  by  the 


246 


TLATE  XLVIII. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XLVIII.; 


247 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


145 


simple  expedient  of  placing  them  upon  a  short  section  of  wall,  or  pedes- 
tal, treated  with  an  ornate  Ionic  antse  cap  and  base-mould  (Fig.  81). 
This  is  practically  the  first  instance  of  the  stylobate  being  given  such 
a  distinctive  and  different  treatment;  and  it  was  not  till  almost  100 
years  later  that  the  columns  of  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates  were 


placed  on  their  raised  basement  or  pedestal,  a  custom  which  the 
Romans  later  adopted  in  many  of  their  buildings. 

In  place  of  capitals,  these  statues  carry  on  their  heads  a  sort  of 
cushion  of  round  mouldings  (Fig.  82),  which  in  turn  carries  the  en- 
tablature. But  though  the  entablature  approaches  that  of  the  Ionic 


249 


I  1 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


147 


Order  in  the  richness  and  ele- 
gance of  its  decoration,  and 
presents  a  most  beautiful  sim- 
ilarity to  the  Ionic,  we  notice 
that  the  frieze  of  the  entabla- 
ture is  completely  suppressed. 
In  effect  the  cornice  rests  di- 
rectly on  the  mouldings  crown- 
ing the  architrave. 

The  caryatid  sometimes 
supported  a  complete  Ionic  or 
Corinthian  capital  upon  its 
head,  in  the  place  of  the 
mouldings  found  on  the  cary- 
atid in  the  Erechtheum  tri- 
bune, though  there  is  no  extant 
example  belonging  to  a  good 
epoch,  of  such  treatment. 

GREEK  DETAILS 

Erechtheum  Doorway.    A 

doorway  and  window  from  the 
Erechtheum  at  Athens  are 
drawn  out  in  Figs.  83  and  84. 
In  Fig.  84  the  complete  door- 
way (Fig.  85)  is  shown,  while 
in  Fig.  83  the  details  are  drawn 
out  at  a  larger  scale.  The 
window  is  placed  inside  the 
door  opening,  with  the  sections 
of  the  architrave  and  sill  placed 
immediately  above  it.  The 
proportions  of  this  doorway 
and  window  are  typical  of  those 
employed  in  the  best  Greek 
structures;  and  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  width  of  the 
opening  at  the  top  is  narrower 


<DETAIb  CAR* 
'AfiDE*PORCH 
ERBCHTIEVM 


Fig.  82, 


251 


CXJOOOOOOOOOOCXBOWOOOOjZ^ 


OOOOOOOOCOOOOOOQXXDCTOOOOOOOOOOOOqi^i 


252 


GREOG  DETAILS 


IQ      Q      O~~O 


o 
o 


3 


3 


•DOORWAY 


_O 
0 

O 


K 


Fig.  84.    Complete  Doorway  and  Window  of  Erechtheum. 


253 


Fig.  85.    Doorway  iu  North  Porch  of  the  Erechtheum. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  151 

in  each  case  than  it  is  at  the  bottom,  the  lines  tapering  to  some  van- 
ishing point  on  the  center  line  above,  where  they  would  intersect. 
The  width  of  the  architrave  narrows  in  the  same  proportion  as  it 
nears  the  top  of  the  opening.  This  will  sufficiently  indicate,  from  an 
example  of  the  best  period,  the  general  principles  followed  by  the 
Greeks  in  their  use  of  doors  and  windows. 

Stele  Crestings.  The  cresting  ornaments  shown  in  Fig.  86  were 
used  by  the  Greeks  to  finish  off  the  tops  of  their  monumental  stelae  or 
shafts,  one  of  which  is  shown  at  full  height  in  the  upper  central  portion 
of  this  drawing.  The  carving  occurs  on  the  front  and  rear  of  the 
shaft,  which  is  of  comparatively  small  thickness,  being  as  narrow  as 
the  material  employed  will  allow.  The  Greeks  devised  a  great  variety 
of  ornaments  for  this  purpose,  all  sLnilar  in  type  to  the  ones  here 
illustrated;  but  the  eight  examples  reproduced  may  be  considered  as 
fairly  representative  of  some  of  the  best  general  types. 

THE  ENTASIS  OF  THE  GREEK  COLUMN 

The  Greeks,  in  proportioning  their  Doric  columns,  arrived  at  an 
apparent  system  of  entasis  that  is  radically  different  from  the  more 
customary  method  employed  on  all  Roman  columns. 

No  part  of  the  outline  of  the  Doric  column  is  parallel  with  its 
axis  or  center  line.  From  the  very  bottom,  the  shaft  slopes  in  to- 
wards the  center,  this  slope  increasing  as  it  nears  the  neck  of  the  col- 
umn, in  portions  of  arcs  of  circles  of  a  varying  though  large  radius. 
This  could  not  be  described  as  a  true  arc,  however,  inasmuch  as  at  the 
bottom  the  line  is  almost  straight  for  some  distance.  By  referring 
to  Fig.  87,  the  column  from  the  Parthenon,  shown  in  Plate  XXXVII, 
will  be  found  drawn  out  with  special  reference  to  its  outline  or  entasis. 
In  the  middle  of  the  sheet,  at  the  top,  the  plans  of  the  column  at  the 
neck  and  base  are  shown  enlarged  to  one  and  one-half  times  the  size 
of  the  column  shown  in  elevation ;  and  here  the  diameters  through  the 
column  at  the  points  marked  on  the  shaft  are  shown  more  exactly. 
The  total  heightof  theshaft  of  the  column  is  divided  into  six  equal  parts, 
and  numbered  from  one,  beginning  at  the  neck,  to  seven  at  the  base. 
The  difference  between  the  diameter  of  the  column  at  the  neck  and  at 
the  base  is  divided,  on  the  radial  line,  into  an  equal  number  of  parts, 
and  numbered  correspondingly  from  one  at  the  neck  to  seven  at  the 
base,  these  lines  being  extended  parallel  to  the  line  of  axis  until  they 


255 


GREEKS  ORNAMENT 


CRESTS 


Fig.  86. 


256 


A-METHODOF-] 
•I 

DOTRMND 
LNTASIS* 

LANS-ENLARGE! 

MG-THE:^ 

>.   (j 

•i 

"•                  2 

~^\ 

D 

A 

1 

/              *P 

i 

•I* 

3' 

-5  - 

J 

J 

3 

| 

/-^-^x 

s                   \. 

•Diameter  at  E>a*re.- 

.^3 

\ 

7^6 

1 

A 

5                   i 

01         Diameter  -at  Neck-- 

^DORIC^COLVMN 

•Enlcuged  QneH^f  • 

i 

.4 
.5 

^, 

_  _        | 

^ 

g. 

•  6 

6 

/ 

f^\ 

/ 

4 

5_ 

_!7                                 ~"T 

/             \ 

•  P«junet,er  at.  •  E>aj  e,  •           | 

•\                 -7 

J  =  i 

C                         .        J_, 

-PARmNOlSh 

OFGREEfcDORI 

ERECHTKVM* 

SHAFTS' 

Diameter  at.  JJack,  • 

•1ONIOCOLVMN- 

O  PICNIC 

Fig.  87. 


257 


154  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

intersect  the  lines  at  right  angles  to  them  that  divide  the  column  into 
the  six  parts  just  referred  to.  It  will  then  be  found  that,  as  is  shown 
at  the  right  of  the  column  shaft,  these  points  will  coincide  with  the 
outline  of  the  column  which  passes  through  them,  except  at  the  two 
points  numbered  four  and  five.  As  is  shown  more  clearly  on  the  other 
side  of  the  column,  where  the  dotted  line  indicates  a  straight  line  drawn 
between  the  points  one  and  seven,  the  swelling  of  the  column  occurs 
between  points  six  and  three;  and  therefore,  at  the  points  numbered 
four  and  five,  the  outline  of  the  column  is  slightly  beyond  the  point  of 
intersection  of  the  two  lines  that  we  have  just  described.  This  will  in 
the  main  determine  a  general  scheme  for  arranging  with  some  correct- 
ness the  entasis  of  the  column  outline  of  the  Greek  Doric  Order,  al- 
though it  varies  somewhat  in  each  of  the  different  old  examples. 

The  Greek  Ionic  column  follows  a  different  system.  This  shaft 
also  has  no  portion  of  its  outline  that  is  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the 
column,  but  the  outline  is  at  all  points  more  nearly  parallel  than  was 
true  of  the  Doric  shaft.  This  is  not  only  because  of  the  slight  differ- 
ence between  the  diameter  at  the  neck  and  base,  and  the  greater  height 
of  the  column,  but  also  because  the  lower  portion  of  the  shaft  more 
nearly  approximates  a  perpendicular  line  than  in  the  earlier  Order. 
As  we  have  already  mentioned,  in  one  instance  there  is  a  very  light 
belly  on  the  Ionic  shaft,  whereby  its  diameter  at  a  point  one-third  the 
height  of  the  shaft  above  the  base  is  y^-T  greater  than  it  is  at  its  lower 
diameter.  This  is  the  exception,  however,  and  the  shaft  shown  in 
Fig.  87  is  dimensioned  after  the  more  general  Greek  custom. 

This  shaft  is  also  divided  into  six  equal  parts,  and  the  line  of  the 
diameter  at  the  neck  is  set  off  on  the  circle  expressing  the  plan  at  the 
base.  The  distance  on  this  circle  is  then  divided  into  six  equal  parts, 
and  is  numbered  correspondingly  with  the  divisions  on  the  shaft  of 
the  column,  as  we  have  already  done  in  working  out  the  Doric  entasis. 
The  points  determined  on  this  plan  of  the  column  at  the  base  are  then 
extended,  as  before,  until  they  intersect  the  lines  dividing,  at  right 
angles  to  them,  the  shaft  of  the  column,  which  will  determine  the  points 
through  which  the  column  outline  should  pass.  This  method  deter- 
mines of  itself  the  exact  increase  of  the  "tumble-home"  of  the  column 
in  its  upper  portions.  The  arc  described  by  this  outline  approximates, 
although  it  does  not  exactly  coincide  with,  a  hyperbolic  curve. 

The  Greek  Corinthian  shaft  has  no  set  and  determined  entasis. 


258 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  155 

Each  of  the  three  examples  shown  in  Plate  XLVIII  follows  a  different 
method.  The  shaft  of  the  column  from  the  Temple  of  the  Winds 
should  be  laid  out  by  the  Doric  method,  the  different  effect  being  given 
by  the  comparatively  small  difference  between  the  diameter  at  the 
neck  and  at  the  base,  as  well  as  by  the  extra  height  of  the  shaft  and  the 
form  of  the  capital.  The  shaft  from  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates 
follows  veiy  nearly  the  Ionic  method,  differing  from  it,  however,  in 
that  the  lower  one-third  of  the  column  is  in  outline  more  nearly  parallel 
to  the  line  of  the  axis  than  the  method  we  have  described  for  determin- 
ing the  Ionic  shaft.  The  column  from  the  Tholos  at  Epidauros  follows 
the  method  afterwards  used  by  the  Romans,  the  lower  one-third  of  the 
column  being  straight  and  perpendicular,  with  the  outline  parallel  with 
the  line  of  axis,  while  above  this  point  the  diminution  is  determined 
by  the  same  process  as  we  employed  on  the  shaft  of  the  Ionic  column, 
being  restricted  in  its  application,  however,  to  the  upper  two-thirds  of 
the  column  shaft. 

GREEK   INTERCOLUMNIATION 

The  intercolumniation  of  a  colonnade  is  the  spacing  apart  of  the 
columns,  the  distance  given  being  that  in  the  clear  between  them. 
The  distances  between  the  centers  of  the  columns  are  invariably  one 
diameter  more  than  the  intercolumniation  or  space  between. 

Doric  Intercolumniation.  The  spacing  of  all  Doric  columns  is 
determined  by  the  location  in  the  frieze  of  the  triglyph  and  mutule, 
the  column  invariably  coming  beneath  these  ornaments.  In  the  best 
Greek  work  the  .columns  are  so  spaced  that  there  is  but  one  triglyph 
over  the  opening  between  them;  and  this  arrangement  is  termed 
monotriglyphic  intercolumniation.  There  are  a  few  instances  where 
the  intercolumniation  has  been  increased  so  that  two  triglyphs 
come  in  the  space  between  the  columns,  when  it  is  known  as  ditri= 
glyphic  intercolumniation.  This  usage  in  true  Greek  work  is  very 
rare,  except  in  some  such  special  instance  as  that  shown  in  the 
Propylsea  at  Athens  (Fig.  88),  where,  in  order  to  get  the  width  neces- 
sary for  such  an  important  entrance  way,  the  two  center  columns  are 
given  this  wide  spacing.  The  Greeks,  as  has  already  been  said, 
placed  the  triglyph  at  the  very  corner  of  the  frieze;  and,  as  the  metope 
is  invariably  square,  it  then  becomes  impossible  for  the  center  of  the 
triglyph  to  come  over  the  center  of  the  column  in  either  elevation,  as 


359 


156 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


the  placing  of  the  latter  in  relation  to  and  in  plane  with  the  face  of  the 
frieze  above  is  a  more  important  consideration.  This  causes  the 
columns  at  the  corner  of  the  building  to  come  closer  to  each  other  than 
anywhere  else  along  the  colonnade,  and  the  effect  itself  is  neither 
unpleasant  nor  very  apparent,  this  extra  strengthening  of  the  corner 
of  the  building  or  the  end  of  the  colonnade  seeming  natural  and  to  be 
demanded  by  the  eye  of  the  observer.  By  again  referring  to  Fig.  88, 
the  fa9ade  of  the  Propylaea  at  Athens  forming  a  six-columned  entrance 


Pig.  88.    The  Propylsea,  Athens. 

portico,  the  usual  methods  of  spacing  the  Greek  Doric  order  is  amply 
illustrated.  The  central  space,  the  principal  entrance  to  the  Acropolis 
above,  demanded  a  wider  opening  than  that  given  by  the  monotri- 
glyphic  intercolumniation,  therefore  the  builders  very  naturally  in- 
creased this  center  opening  by  making  the  spacing  of  the  columns  ditri- 
glyphic.  The  two  spaces  on  either  side  of  this  are  laid  out  on  the 
regular  monotriglyphic  system  of  intercolumniation,  as  will  be  readily 
seen ;  while  the  two  outside  spaces,  coming  at  the  corner  of  the  build- 


260 


DETAILS  FROM- 

CHORAGIGMON 
VNCNTOF'LYSICRSES 


PLATE  XLIX. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  XLIX.) 


261 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


157 


DORIC- 
-1KEKOQLVMN1AT1QN 


ing,  require  the  closer  placing  of  the  columns,  on  account  of  the  tri- 
glyph  in  the  frieze  occurring  at  the  angle. 

This  system  of  spacing  is  rather  interestingly  shown  in  Fig.  89, 
where  it  will  be  noticed  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Temple  of 
Philip,  an  example  of  small  size 
and  comparative  unimportance, 
all  of  the  other  well-known 
buildings  whose  column  spacing 
is  there  illustrated  in  plan  are 
shown  to  have  monotriglyphic 
intercolumniation.  O  f  course, 
using  as  close  a  spacing  of  heavy 
columns  at  a  small  scale  as  this 
requires,  gives  very  little  width 
between  them;  and  in  this  excep- 
tion (the  Temple  of  Philip),  even 
with  ditriglyphic  intercolumnia- 
tion, there  is  still  something  less 
than  seven  feet  clear  opening; 
while,  if  the  usual  spacing  had 
been  employed,  there  would  have 
been  only  about  four  feet,  as 
shown  in  the  small  Temple  of 
Apollo  in  the  same  illustration. 

Ionic  Intercolumniation. 
The  intercolumniation  of  the 
Greek  Ionic  Order  is  shown  in 
four  well-known  examples  in  Fig. 
90,  after  the  same  fashion  as  in 
the  illustration  of  Greek  Ionic 
spacing.  When  relieved  from  the 
hampering  restrictions  of  the 
mutule-triglyph  spacing  of  the 


1 

TtMPLE.  -OF  •  CD3UJVJTH  • 


GRAND  -TE.7WPLZ--3^&STUM.- 


.So  TAKTS  •  JN  • 


Doric  order,  wre  immediately  find 

more  divergence  in   the  relative 

placing  of  the  columns,  although,  in  the  two  examples  shown  from  the 

Erechtheum — one  of  the  North  Porch,  or  Portico  to  the  Temple  of 

Minerva  Polias,  in  which  four  columns  were  employed;  and  the  other 


263 


158 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


*  GREEK-* IONIC-     *. 
•  INTERjCOLUMNIATlQN  • 


3  Dtl<^.- 

•6  TH  • 


« 

-*- 


EEBCHTEUM  -ATJiNJ 


from  the  six-columned  entrance  to  the  east — we  find  at  once  the  small- 
est and  the  greatest  distance  between  the  columns,  the  former  being 
spaced  apart  on  centers  eight  modules  or  four  diameters,  leaving  an 
intercolumniation  of  three  diameters  in  the  clear,  while  the  latter  are 
spaced  six  modules  or  three  diameters  on  centers,  with  an  intercolum- 
niation of  two  diameters.  In  part  this  difference  may  be  accounted 

for  by  the  fact  that  the 
wider  and  fatter  pedi- 
ment of  the  latter  exam- 
ple requires  more  appar- 
ent support,  as  undoubt- 
edly would  be  true.  As 
the  Greeks  had  the  good 
taste  to  avoid  placing  a 
column  beneath  the  cen- 
ter of  a  pediment — which 
would  be  unnatural 
where,  as  in  this  instance, 
an  entrance  doorway 
comes  on  the  center  line 
of  the  pediment — they 
were  compelled  to  in- 
crease the  number  o  f 
columns  from  four  to  six. 
Nevertheless,  the  North 
Porch  (Plate  XLIV), 
with  its  wider  interco- 
lumniation, remains  a 
more  pleasing  example 
of  proportionate  spacing  than  the  principal  entrance  portico  on  the 
same  building. 

Corinthian  Intercolumniation,  From  the  few  examples  of  the 
use  of  the  Corinthian  Order  left  us  by  the  Greeks,  it  would  be  injudici- 
ous to  deduce  any  general  rule  for  their  intercolumniation,  inasmuch 
as  each  example  is  an  individual  solution  of  a  special  problem.  In 
the  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  the  spacing  of  six  modules  and  six  parts 
on  centers  was  employed ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  monu- 
ment was  circular  in  plan  and  the  whole  Order  very  small  in  scale,  the 


TEMPLE  •  ON  -TE.  -1LLMU  J  - 


FEET  -L_I 

•  3o  •'P^R.T.J-  IN  -I 


Fig.  90. 


264 


EPIDAVROS 

SHOMNG'CQN'EM' 
PORAT^OVSA/SE-OF' 

GREEfcDORICAND- 
OORINHIAN^ORDERS 


i  *ta » y;f '  V^'T'I*'! '4; 

flff^rj^flfSTnfs 

crLloofncilaoln 


PLATE  L. 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  L.) 


265 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  159 

first  fact  especially  having  a  very  important  bearing  on  the  intercolum- 
niation  of  the  column  shafts;  while  their  being  engaged  to  the  wall 
surface  behind  is  also  an  important  factor.  In  the  Tower  of  the 
Winds,  the  columns  are  used  to  support  a  small  doorway  pediment 
after  a  more  modern  taste,  and  this  example  is  therefore  quite  worth- 
less in  this  connection.  In  the  circular  Temple  of  Epidauros,  we 
have  another  instance  of  the  Greek  use  of  this  Order;  but  this  also  has 
a  special  set  of  attendant  circumstances,  the  temple  being  round  in 
plan,  and  the  Corinthian  order  being  used  on  the  interior;  while, 
although  the  columns  are  detached  from  the  blank  wall  behind  them, 
there  is  in  reality  only  a  very  narrow  separating  ambulatory  or  passage- 
way. In  this  instance  the  columns  were  spaced  apart  on  centers 
nearly  seven  modules,  with  an  intercolumniation  of  five  modules  or 
two  and  one-half  diameters. 

GREEK    ANTAE  OR   PILASTERS 

Doric  Pilasters.  The  plan  adopted  by  the  Greeks  in  their  Doric 
temple  structures,  was  one  that  would  necessarily  increase  the  im^ 
portance  of  the  column  shafts,  and  required  a  sharp  demarcation 
between  the  fluted  columns  and  the  contrasting  plain  wall  surface. 
In  the  early  temples  with  an  entrance  porch,  the  side  walls  were  carried 
forward,  and  their  ends  were  finished  by  a  pilaster  treatment  on  their 
front,  returning  on  the  two  sides;  while  two  columns  were  placed  be- 
tween them.  These  slightly  projecting  pilasters,  termed  antae,  used 
by  the  Greeks,  are  employed  for  the  most  part  upon  the  ends  of  walls. 
An  elevation  of  the  front  of  such  a  building  (Plate  XXXV),  gives  us 
the  effect  of  an  entrance  porch  composed  of  two  columns  and  two 
pilasters,  the  latter  supporting,  on  each  side,  the  ends  of  the  entablature 
overhead.  In  Greek  architecture  these  pilasters  are  seldom  used  in 
important  positions,  on  account  of  the  extreme  importance  given  to 
the  column,  and  the  resulting  fact  that  the  Greeks  so  arranged  the 
plans  of  their  buildings  as  very  seldom  to  require  the  use  of  a  pilaster 
in  any  important  location.  Of  course,  being  placed  behind  a  series 
of  columns  in  this  fashion  would  naturally  render  the  pilaster  verv 
unobtrusive,  and  this  effect  was  emphasized  by  its  manner  of  treat- 
ment as  a  part  of  the  wall  itself.  The  shafts  of  these  pilasters  are 
always  plain,  and  never  given  any  entasis,  being  the  same  width  at  the 
top  as  at  the  bottom.  The  capitals  differ  very  radically  from  the 


267 


*GREEK>  <DORIO 

-ANTAE* 

T 

; 

j!                               ! 

;                    ;    i 

:  -^  '-a               v> 

i                      \l* 

i                          p 

st           * 

si 

~^ 

7 

*) 
0 

\o 

4KB*** 

^PAE^TVM<              -THESEV^AFENS- 

i                                   i 

!  675s-                                                   j    S 

(J 

•                                   J            1 

;l 

y 

:  <=/                B 

1 

lo 

y 

§ 

<o 

fflMffl/MVM 

r 

^Vr 

^KDJYIAIA^ 

^HNON-AffiN^-        -m5L3-«W»S- 

Fig.  91. 


268 


j  lOocaxxDoooaaooooooooooooo 


f 

.jr 


<0 


1    7 


Fig.  92.    Greek  Ionic  Pilasters. 


269 


162 


capitals  of  the  column,  inasmuch  as  they  consist  of  merely  a  series  of 
fine  mouldings  below  the  abacus  and  set  on  top  of  one  or  more  fascias, 
as  in  Fig.  91.  The  contrast  offered  by  the  plain  surface  of  these  pilas- 
ters to  the  fluted  columns  with  which  they  are  ordinarily  used,  is  very 
effective,  while  by  their  very  character,  when  seen  from  any  distance, 
they,  tend  to  become  a  part  of  the  wall  to  which  they  were  attached. 


Fig.  93.    Comparative  Column  and  Pilaster  Treatment. 

These  pilasters  are  sometimes  given  a  base  the  same  as  the  columns, 
but  their  cap  and  base  are  more  customarily  formed  by  the  mouldings 
which  are  placed  at  the  base  and  top  of  the  wall  against  which  these 
anise  are  placed.  In  the  Doric  Order  they  generally  have  a  plain 
projecting  plinth  base,  with  no  mouldings,  although  sometimes  the 
shaft  descends  directly  to  the  stylobate  or  platform,  as  in  the  column 
of  the  same  Order. 

Ionic  Pilasters.    With  the  Ionic  column  the  Greeks  employed 


270 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


163 


many  different  types  of  pilaster  capitals,  some  being  very  elaborate 
in  their  form  and  ornamentation.  The  Ionic  antse,  the  same  as  the 
Doric  antse,  have  for  their  bases  the  lines  of  the  base  of  the  walls;  and 
for  the  crowning  mouldings  of  their  capitals,  the  mouldings  are  covered 
with  ornaments,  eggs-and-darts,  beads  and  reels,  honeysuckles,  etc. 
The  capital  of  the  Ionic  antse  receives  from  the  school  of  Pythius 
sculptured  decorations  of  great  variety.  The  best  type  is  undoubtedly 
that  which  we  find  used  in  the  Erechtheum,  with  the  various  examples 
of  the  Ionic  ornamented  capital  and  column  which  we  have  already 
illustrated.  Two  of  these  pilasters  are  shown  in  Fig.  92.  These  antse 


Fig.  94. 

capitals  are  moulded  and  carved  quite  elaborately,  while  along  the 
surface  of  the  frieze  in  ,each  instance  runs  the  same  treatment  as  is 
used  to  adorn  the  neck  of  the  accompanying  capital.  These  pilasters 
are  given  a  moulded  base,  much  the  same  as  that  employed  on  the 
columns,  although  the  members  are  ornamented  with  more  horizontal 
lines  than  are  used  on  the  column  base.  It  will  be  observed  that  these 
pilasters  follow  the  same  general  treatment  as  those  used  with  the 
Greek  Doric  Order;  and  they  should  be  compared,  in  all  the  examples 
illustrated,  with  the  columns,  shown  elsewhere,  with  which  they  were 
used. 

Fig.  93  shows  side  by  side  a  comparative  column  and  pilaster 
treatment  from  the  Temple  of  Minerva  at  Priene.  This  illustrates 
the  size  of  the  pilaster  as  regards  the  column  diameter  at  the  neck  and 
base.  As  will  be  seen,  it  approximates  a  mean  between  these  two 
dimensions.  The  capital  of  the  pilaster  is  shown  one-half  on  each 
side  of  the  center  line,  to  indicate  the  treatment  both  of  the  end  and  of 
the  face.  The  same  treatment  was  applied  to  the  square  detached 


271 


164 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


columns  or  piers  employed  in  this  temple.  In  Fig.  94  are  shown  the 
end  and  face  of  a  pilaster  cap  from  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Miletus. 
These  pilasters,  each  ornamented  differently,  were  used  attached  to  a 


13 
-i-*- 


-n 

m 
J 

i  

Rj 

r 
i 
i 

i 

•i 

~    —    ~~.-\  1 

• 

i 

i 
i 

ff 

Fig.  95. 

wall  surface,  and  were  connected  with  each  other  by  a  carved  and 
ornamented  frieze.  The  end  of  the  pilaster,  therefore,  is  shallow  in 
width  and  depth,  and  only  the  face  is  regarded  in  reference  to  the 
column  width. 


272 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  165 

Corinthian  Pilasters.  Of  the  use  of  pilasters  with  the  Greek 
Corinthian  Order,  we  have  only  one  authoritative  instance — that  of  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens.  There  is  no  pilaster  used  with  the 
Corinthian  Order  on  either  of  the  other  examples,  the  Monument  of 
Lysicrates  or  the  Tholos  at  Epidauros;  and  in  this  example  from  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds,  illustrated  in  Fig.  95,  the  pilaster  was  used  only 
on  each  side  of  the  entrance  doorway  to  receive  the  entablature  re- 
turning from  the  small  pedimented  porch,  which  is  more  fully  shown 
in  the  illustration  of  this  building  in  Fig.  74. 

EXAMINATION     PLATES 

In  addition  to  the  following  examination  plates,  the  student 
is  expected  to  make  such  sketches  or  drawings  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  Order  from  the  descriptions  and  references  in  the  text 
as  will  enable  him  to  thoroughly  understand  their  different  parts 
and  their  general  forms  and  proportions. 

The  following  plates  are  to  be  drawn  out  to  the  required 
sizes,  and  sent  to  the  School  for  correction.  The  plates  should  be 
carefully  and  thoroughly  drawn  out  in  pencil  before  attempting  to 
ink  them  in.  All  the  large  plates  are  to  be  drawn  on  a  half -sheet 
of  Strathmore  smooth-finish  or  Whatman's  hot-pressed  drawing 
paper,  with  the  border  line  laid  out  to  the  size  given,  12  by  16| 
inches;  and  the  paper  should  be  trimmed  with  a  half -inch  border 
outside  this  line,  making  the  paper  size  of  the  finished  plate  13  by 
17^  inches. 

The  measurement  figures  given  on  the  various  plates  may  be 
omitted  from  the  drawings  made  by  the  student. 

The  titles  of  the  plates  are  to  be  lettered,  generally  speaking, 
in  the  same  fashion  as  the  lettering  on  the  principal  drawings  illus- 
trating this  Instruction  Paper.  The  student  should  first  be  care- 
ful to  place  pencil  guide-lines  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  his  letters, 
both  for  capitals  and  small  letters. 

The  date,  the  student's  name  and  address, and  the  plate  num- 
ber should  be  lettered  on  each  plate  in  one-line  letters,  such  as  are 
used  in  the  title  of  Fig.  73. 

PLATE    A 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  to  the  size  of  12  by  16^  inches  a 
plate  showing  Greek  moulding  sections.  This  plate  is  to  include 


273 


166  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

all  the  mouldings  described  in  the  text  on  pages  109  to  113;  and  be 
is  to  letter  each  moulding  with  its  proper  name.  Re  is  to  utilize 
mouldings  from  the  plates  illustrated  in  this  Instruction  Paper, 
and  may  arrange  them  in  the  general  fashion  shown  in  Fig.  46, 
obtaining  another  perpendicular  row  of  mouldings  in  addition  to 
the  eight  illustrated  in  that  cut. 

o 

PLATE    B 

An  order  plate  showing  the  Greek  Doric  column  and  entab- 
lature after  the  fashion  shown  in  Plate  XXXVIII,  is  the  second 
examination  plate  required.  This  plate  may  be  carefully  copied 
by  the  student,  with  the  outline  enlarged  and  drawn  to  the  size  of 
12  by  161  inches. 

PLATE    C 

The  student  should  draw  out  the  complete  Greek  Doric  col- 
umn at  its  entire  height,  as  shown  in  Plate  XXXVII,  at  the  size 

O        ' 

of  the  small  detail  of  the  cap  at  the  bottom  of  this  same  plate. 

PLATE    D 

The  student  is  to  draw  the  facade  of  the  Propylaea  on  a  plate 
12  by  16J  inches  in  size,  and  is  to  include  sections  of  the  principal 
mouldings  and  a  detail  of  the  capital,  supplying  his  sections,  etc., 
from  the  information  given  on  the  plates  illustrating  the  Doric- 
Order.  The  facade  of  the  Propylsea  is  shown  in  Fig.  88  at  a  small 
scale.  This  is  to  be  enlarged,  retaining  the  same  proportions. 

PLATE    E 

An  order  plate  showing  the  Greek  Ionic  column  and  entabla- 
ture after  the  fashion  shown  in  Plate  XLI,  is  the  fifth  examination 
plate  required.  This  plate  may  be  copied  by  the  student,  with  the 
outline  enlarged  and  drawn  to  the  size  of  12  by  16^  inches. 

PLATE    F 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  at  the  size  of  12  by  16|  inches  one 
or  the  other  of  the  Ionic  capitals  shown  in  Plates  XLII  or  XLIII, 
omitting  the  measurement  figures  there  given. 

PLATE    Q 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  to  the  size  of  12  by  16^  inches  the 
detail  from  the  Erechtheum  shown  on  Plate  XLV,  taking  special 
pains  to  retain  the  character  of  the  moulding  sections  and  carving 
shown  in  the  original. 


274 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  167 

2 

PLATE    H 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  on  a  plate  12  by  16^  inches  in 
size,  a  Greek  Ionic  pedimented  facade  of  four  or  six  columns.  It 
is  suggested  that  he  take  one  of  the  porches  of  the  Erechtheura  for 
a  model.  This  building  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  67;  while  the 
details  of  the  entablature  are  shown  in  Plate  XLV,  and  the  column 
is  drawn  out  to  a  large  size  in  Plate  XXXVII.  The  north  porch 
of  this  building  is  further  shown  in  Plate  XLIV  and  Fig.  08. 

PLATE    J 

An  order  plate  showing  the  Greek  Corinthian  column  and  en- 
tablature after  the  fashion  shown  in  Plate  XLVTI,  is  the  ninth 
examination  plate  required.  This  plate  may  be  enlarged  and 
copied  by  the  student  within  the  outline  size  of  12  by  16i  inches. 

PLATE  K 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  the  Corinthian  and  Doric  columns 
and  entablatures  from  the  Tholos  at  Epidauros  shown  in  Plates 
XLVIII  and  L,  showing  the  columns  at  their  full  height,  and  in- 
cluding on  some  part  of  the  drawing  the  three  sections  of  orna- 
ment shown  at  the  bottom  of  Plate  L.  Sections  of  the  two 
entablatures  should  be  included. 

PLATE  L 

The  Greek  Doorway  for  the  Erechtheum,  shown  in  Fig.  84, 
is  to  be  drawn  on  a  plate  12  by  16^  inches  in  size,  and  to  include 
in  the  door  opening  the  details  shown  in  Fig.  83  at  double  the 
size  there  drawn.  These  details  are  to  be  inserted  in  place  of  the 
window  shown  in  Fig.  84. 

FREEHAND  EXAMINATION  SKETCHES 

The  student  is  required  to  draw  in  ink  and  freehand  the  fol- 
lowing sketches,  modeling  them  upon  the  one  shown  in  Fig  73, 
and  making  their  outline  about  4  by  5^  inches  in  size.  These 
drawings  are  to  be  made  freehand  from  the  plates  included  in  this 
Instruction  Paper,  and  are  to  show  the  proportions  and  carving 
with  particular  care. 

PLATE  M 

A  capital  of  the  Greek  Doric  column  shown  in  perspective, 
somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  the  columns  in  the  Frontispiece. 


275 


168  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

PLATE  N 

A  sketch  of  a  Greek  Ionic  capital  in  perspective,  using  any 
one  of  the  styles  shown  in  the  Instruction  Paper,  as  a  model. 

PLATE  O 

A  sketch  perspective  of  a  Greek  Corinthian  capital,  employ- 
ing any  one  of  the  three  types  shown. 

PLATE  P 

The  acanthus  leaf  shown  in  Fig.  69  is  to  be  drawn  at  the  size 
of  one  of  these  sketches,  either  in  perspective  or,  as  in  the  figure, 
in  direct  elevation. 

PLATE  Q 

Any  one  of  the  stele  crests  shown  in  Fig.  86  is  to  be  drawn 
out  freehand  to  the  size  of  4  by  5|  inches  to  agree  with  the  other 
sketch  plates,  and  is  to  be  submitted  along  with  them  for  cor- 
rection. 

These  six  freehand  sketches  are  to  be  made  by  the  student 
when  studying  the  various  Orders  and  should  all  be  sent  to  the 
School  at  one  time  when  completed. 


876 


ROMAN  CONSTRUCTION. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

PART  III. 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  ROHANS 

Origin  of  Roman  Architecture.  While  the  architecture  of  Kgypt, 
as  well  as  that  of  other  early  civilizations,  probably  contributed  toward 
the' style  that  was  eventually  produced  and  defined  by  the  Greek  art- 
ists, the  Romans,  by  their  conquest  of  Greece,  at  once  acquired  a  uni- 
fied and  perfected  architecture  at  almost  the  full  height  of  its  develop- 
ment. Not  only  were  the  buildings  and  architectural  forms  themselves 
perfected,  but  they  were  then  being  produced  by  the  designers,  archi- 
tects, and  artists  who,  as  members  of  the  subjugated  nation,  became 
the  subjects  of  the  more  powerful  race. 

Thus  the  Romans  became  possessed  of  a  perfected,  if  exotic, 
architecture;  and  we  cannot  therefore  be  surprised  to  find  that  the 
early  Roman  buildings  were  often  Greek,  in  both  their  design  and 
workmanship.  This  architectural  style,  although  soon  permanently 
affected  in  its  development  by  Roman  civilization,  yet  at  first  showed 
but  slightly  the  influence  of  the  arts  of  other  foreign  nations  or  raceo. 
The  one  notable  exception  was  as  regards  the  Roman  adoption  of  the 
arch  as  the  most  important  structural  principle  of  their  buildings. 

The  Arch  and  Vault.  In  taking  up  the  progress  of  architecture 
at  the  period  when  the  Greeks  and  other  early  nations  yielded  to  the 
succeeding  ruling  race,  the  Romans;  the  difference  in  the  vital  prin- 
ciples underlying  the  structural  elements  of  these  two  periods  must  be 
thoroughly  understood.  Throughout  the  Greek  work  we  find  that 
the  lintel  or  supporting  beam  of  wrood  or  stone  seems  to  be  the  only 
method  of  construction  upon  which  they  depended  to  any  extent. 
The  Romans,  on  the  contrary,  adopted  the  arch  (see  Fig.  96)  to  carry 
across  all  openings ;  and  they  further  extended  its  use,  in  the  form  of  a 
vault,  to  the  covering  of  rooms  or  voids  which  they  desired  to  roof  in. 
The  principle  of  this  vaulted  arch  they  had  evidently  borrowed  di- 
rectly from  the  Etruscans;  a  people  of  Asiatic  origin  living  in  northern 
Italy  some  ten  or  twelve  centuries  before  Christ. 


279 


170 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


•  JECTION 


The  arch  itself  dates  back  to  a  much  earlier  period.  There  are 
examples  in  Egypt  of  brick  barrel  vaults  composed  of  three  rings  of 
voussoirs,  built  about  3500  B.  C.;  but  the  Etruscans,  by  their  use  of 

cut  stone  instead  .of  brick  for  this 
purpose,  evidenced  a  much 
higher  engineering  skill,  at  least 
so  far  as  an  understanding  of 
stereotomy  was  concerned.  This 
same  people  continued  to  employ 
a  form  of  construction  consisting 
of  overlapping  layers  of  stone- 
work, which  may  only  indicate 
the  transition  from  the  lintel  to 
the  arch  principle,  or  which  may 
have  been  devised  solely  to  imi- 
tate the  interior  appearance  of  a 
rock-cut  tomb.  This  same 
FiS-  96-  scheme,  we  know,  was  used  by 

the  Egyptians,  Assyrians-,  and  Pelasgians,  although  it  is  best  shown 
in  the  Etruscan  tombs;  and,  because  of  the  large  size  of  the  blocks  of 
stone  employed,  it  is  frequently  referred  to  as  "Cyclopean"  masonry. 
These  tombs,  round  in  plan,  were  constructed  of  layers  of  stone- 
work, each  layer  projecting  over  the  layer  next  below,  until  they  met 
at  the  crown  or  apex  of  the  resulting  vault.  This  circular  construction 
was  then  covered  with  earth  or  gravel,  and  the  angles  of  the  stone  on 
the  interior  were  dressed  down  to  an  even  surface,  suggesting  by  its 
outline  the  segment  of  an  arch,  as  shown  in  Fig.  97.  These  tombs 
were  built  by  the  Pelasgic  race  in  Italy  probably  between  the  years  1800 
and  1500  B.  C.;  but  it  remained  for  the  Etruscans  finally  to  define  the 
principle  of  the  voussoired  arch  of  stonework.  This  principle  the 
Romans  borrowed  and  probably  developed  to  a  much  higher  degree 
than  had  ever  been  considered  possible  by  its  originators. 

By  adopting  this  principle,  the  Romans  seldom  required  the  col- 
umn as  a  support  for  the  lintel  in  the  way  that  the  Greeks  had  here- 
tofore used  it;  and,  as  the  arch  required  a  heavier  and  stronger  sup- 
porting member  than  the  column  in  order  to  resist  the  thrust  which  it 
originated  and  transmitted,  they  were  compelled  to  revert  to  the  more 


280 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


171 


solid  pier  of  masonry  for  this  pupose,  which  at  once  materially  modi- 
fied the  appearance  of  their  buildings.     (See  frontispiece.) 

Combination  of  Arch  and  Lintel  Construction.  The  Romans, 
moreover,  acquainted  with  the 
civilization  and  the  architecture 
of  the  Greeks,  demanded  a  more 
architectural  effect  than  had  sat- 
isfied the  Etruscan  builders;  and 
therefore  they  adapted  to  their 
own  purpose  the  architectural 
forms  and  Orders  originated  by 
the  Greek  artists,  and  even  used 
them  for  ornamenting  the  other- 
wise plain  wall  surfaces  of  their 
various  structures,  in  a  way  that 
the  Greeks  had  never  done. 
They  employed  a  column,  or  par- 
tial column,  placed  against  a 
plain  wall  surface — or  engaged, 
as  it  is  called,  to  the  wall  behind ; 
as  in  the  Tabularium,  where  an 
arcade  on  the  side  towards  the 
Forum  was  decorated  with  en- 


Fig.  97.    Horizontal  and  Vertical  Section 
of  Pelasgic  Arch  Construction. 


ROMAN  AASE  *  OF  -  ARCH  -AND  -PIER/ 


Fig.  98. 

gaged  Doric  columns,  carrying  an  entablature.     This  is  the  earliest 
Roman  instance  of  the  use  of  the  Orders  in  this  fashion,  and  dates 


281 


172 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


from  about  78  B.  C.  The  Temple  of  Fortujia  Virilis  (Fig.  -123) ,  in 
which  the  columns  were  engaged,  with  a  plain  wall  surface  between, 
after  the  fashion  possibly  suggested  by  one  or  two  of  the  earlier 
Greek  structures,  is  of  a  date  earlier  than  the  arcade  of  the 
Tabularium. 

A  reference  to -Figs.  98  and  99  will  show  the  radically  different 
appearance  given  by  thus  applying  an  Order  of  architecture  as  .an 


— -4-Dl«tneta»*|  ' 
" * —    •  10- Module* -#| 


Fig   99. 

ornament  upon  the  face  of  a  method  of  construction  complete  in  itself. 
In  Fig.  98  is  shown  a  simple  arcade  supported  on  plain  piers  (A,  Fig. 
100);  and  in  Fig.  99  is  drawn  out  a  similar  arcade  ornamented  by  the 
application  of  the  Doric  Order  to  the  face  of  these  plain  piers,  after 
the  fashion  shown  in  plan  at  B,  Fig.  100. 

This  use  of  the  Order  produces  an  effect  very  different  from  that 
of  the  one  or  two  examples  of  the  use  of  attached  columns  already  ex- 
isting in  Greek  architecture,  although  it  is  probable  that  these  may 
have  suggested  the  application  of  the  column  to  the  face  of  a  plain  wall; 
a  method  of  which  the  Romans  had  already  availed  themselves  in  the 
Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis  at  Rome.  This  example  may  easily  have 
been  copied  from  the  similar  use  of  the  Order  in  the  large  Temple  of 
Jupiter  Olympus  at  Agrigentum,  or  in  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates 
at  Athens. 

In  both  these  Greek  structures  the  columns  are  apparently  planted 


282 


Basilica  of  the  Giants,  Temple  of  Zeus,  Agricfiitum.  Sicily. 
Showing  Greek  "engaged"  columns. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


173 


against  the  face  of  a  connecting  curtain  wall.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
columns  are  entire  in  both  these  buildings,  the  wall  itself  being  built 
up  between  and  behind  them,  with  the  face  hollowed  out  so  as  to 
receive  the  shaft,  thus  suggesting 
the  addition  of  the  wall  at  a  later 
period  as  a  screen  between  the 
columns  without  affecting  the 
lintel  principle  upon  which  the 
building  was  probably  first  de- 
signed. In  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 
Olympus,  the  addition  of  this  wall 
was  probably  made  necessary  by 
the  fact  that  the  tremendous  scale 
of  the  building  made  the  span 
covered  by  the  lintel  of  a  length 
too  great  to  be  carried  safely  in 
this  fashion,  and  so  the  wall  was 
introduced  as  an  additional 
method  of  support.  Possibly 
something  of  this  feeling  may 
have  caused  the  use  of  the  wall 
between  the  columns  in  the  Mon- 
ument of  Lysicrates,  though  for 
different  reasons.  The  plan  of 
this  monument  being  circular,  it 
may  have  been  thought  that  the 
overhanging  projection  of  the  en- 
tablature between  the  supporting  columns  would  weaken  the  lintel, 
either  actually  or  apparently,  so  that  it  might  require  additional  sup- 
port at  its  point  of  greatest  projection. 

But  the  difference  between  the  use  of  the  column  in  this  fashion, 
attached  to  a  plain  curtain  wall,  and  its  use  placed  against  the  face  of  a 
pier  between  arches,  as  the  column  was  employed  in  the  arcades  of  the 
Tabularium  and  later  in  the  Theater  of  Marcellus  and  the  Colosseum, 
suggests  a  great  advance  in  the  architectural  effectivenesss  of  its  use 
and  in  its  close  identification  with  the  more  constructive  architecture 
of  the  Romans,  even  though  there  is  but  slight  difference  in  the  prin- 
ciple of  its  application. 


Fig.  100.    A— Roman  Pier. 

Engaged  Column  and  Pier. 


283 


174 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


But  in  any  event,  the  column,  as  thus  used  by  the  Romans  in 
their  architecture,  can  seldom  be  considered  as  an  important  struc- 
tural feature.  It  does  not  even  act  as  a  buttress  to  resist  the  thrust 
exerted  upon  the  exterior  walls  by  the  interior  arches  roofing  the  rooms 
or  corridors. 

The  Romans  must  first  have  used  a  continuous  and  purely  struc- 
tural arcade  of  arches  turned  against  each  other  and  resting  on  heavy 
masonry  piers,  as  in  their  aqueducts  (Fig.  101  ).  This  undoubtedly 
proved  monotonous  in  effect;  and  so  the  colonnade  was  simply 


Fig.  101     Pont  du  Gard,  Nimes. 

grafted  upon  its  surface,  the  columns  being  each  placed  against  the 
center  of  a  pier.  The  colonnade  shown  in  Fig.  99,  drawn  according 
to  the  rule  of  Vignola,  would  be  more  pleasing  if  the  plain  surface  in 
the  bay  between  the  three-quarter-engaged  columns — below  the  en- 
tablature and  above  the  line  of  the  necking — had  been  omitted,  thus 
allowing  the  lower  line  of  the  entablature  to  be  dropped  to  the  height 
of  the  horizontal  line  shown  directly  over  the  archivolt  or  backband 
of  the  arch. 

Use  of  Superimposed  Orders.     Aside  from  their  assimilation  of 


284 


Theater  of  Marcellus,  Rome. 
Showing  Koiuau  use  of  engaged  and  superimposed  columns. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  175 

the  arch  principle  from  the  Etruscan  builders,  and  their  use  of  the 
Greek-developed  Order  as  a  mere  ornament  applied  on  the  face  of  an 
arch-supported  wall,  the  Romans  further  varied — in  one  important 
particular — their  employment  of  the  Classic  Order.  Where  the 
Greeks,  almost  without  exception,  had  used  one  column — even  of 
gigantic  size  where  necessary — to  carry  from  a  low  basement  or  stylo- 
bate  to  the  entablature  that  acted  as  the  crowning  member  of  the  build- 
ing, as  well  as  of  the  Order  used  on  its  exterior  facade;  the  Romans 
did  not  hesitate  to  superimpose  one  Order  upon  another,  making  two 
or  more  stories,  one  over  the  other,  each  carrying  a  complete  Order 
upon  its  face.  The  derivation  of  this  idea  is  possibly  traceable  to 
some  of  the  Greek  temples,  in  which  a  second  Order  was  sometimes 
used  on  the  interior  to  support  the  gabled  roof  covering  the  structure, 
and,  incidentally,  to  admit  of  a  higher  central  aisle.  For  this  purpcse 
they  used  either  small  columns,  as  at  Psestum  (the  Order  is  here  the 
same  in  style  and  treatment  as  the  one  below,  being  merely  smaller 
in  scale),  or,  more  often,  a  human  figure  placed  upon  the  face  of  a 
plain  pier.  The  idea  of  superposition,  as  developed  by  the  Romans, 
soon  became  an  important  part  of  their  architectural  treatment;  and 
in  the  later  revival  of  Roman  architecture  which  occurred  during  the 
Renaissance,  this  method  of  treatment  was  frequently  used. 

Use  of  Orders  for  Secular  Buildings.  The  Romans,  in  their  use 
of  the  Order,  employed  it  much  more  generally  than  did  their  prede- 
cessors; for,  while  the  Greeks  restricted  its  use  substantially  to  the 
temples  erected  for  the  worship  of  their  various  gods,  the  Romans  did 
not  hesitate  to  use  the  same  architectural  forms  for  buildings  devoted 
solely  to  pleasure  or  for  the  dwellings  of  their  rulers. 

Plan  of  Roman  Temples.  The  Romans  followed,  in  their  tem- 
ples, the  general  form  already  used  in  the  Greek  work,  although  they 
seemed  more  partial  to  circular  buildings  than  were  the  Greeks.  The 
circular  temples  may  have  been  suggested  by  the  Etruscan  tombs,  and 
the  system  employed  for  their  roof  vaulting  does  something  to  strength- 
en this  idea.  The  simple,  rectangular  Greek  plan  they  also  varied  and 
elaborated  by  adding  and  combining  other  rectangles  into  larger 
groups,  with  the  result  that  the  Greek  simplicity  of  effect  was  soon 
entirely  lost. 

In  Rome,  on  account  of  the  restrictions  in  location  occasioned  by 
the  small  area  of  the  city  available  for  the  purpose,  and  the  over-crowd- 


285 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


177 


ing  of  this  area  with  monumental  buildings  of  every  kind,  the  principal 
temples  seldom  attain  the  development  of  plan  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  their  temple  structures.  The  Roman  building  is  almost  invariably 
seen  only  from  a  point  directly  in  front;  and  this  accounts  for  the 
greater  imp)rtance  given  by  the  Romans  to  the  entrance  portico,  its 
increased  depth  and  greater  number  of  columns,  and  the  comparatively 
slight  attention  bestowed  on  the  sides  and  rear  of  the  building.  The 
plan  also,  in  depth,  very  seldom  attains  to  the  dimensions  of  the  lr— , 
restricted  Greek  temple  plans;  and  it  is  important,  in  estimating  the 


Fig.  103.    Interior  of  the  Pantheon,  Rome. 

effect  of  the  Roman  temple  architecture,  to  comprehend  not  only  the 
restriction  of  its  plan,  but  also  its  relation  to  the  surrounding  archi- 
tecture, and  especially  to  the  natural  or  artificial  restrictions  imposed 
by  the  contour  of  the  ground  where  it  was  placed. 

The  Romans  often  employed  the  lintel  principles  of  the  Greeks 
in  their  use  of  columns  for  porches  at  the  entrance  to  their  buildings 
and  temples,  or  to  support  a  wall  over  a  recess.  Both  of  these  cases 
are  well  shown  in  the  exterior  and  interior  treatment  of  the  Pantheon 
at  Rome  (Figs.  102  and  103),  in  which  are  combined  the  circular  tem- 
ple, at  a  gigantic  scale,  with  the  pedimented  porch  or  cella  of  a  co- 
lumnar, rectangular  edifice. 


287 


178  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

The  portico  of  the  Roman  temple  was  generally  approached  by  a 
flight  of  steps,  and  probably  it  was  the  lack  of  space  in  front  of  the 
building  that  first  occasioned  these  steps  being  carried  in  under  the 
portico  itself  and  between  the  columns.  This  would  occasion  a  sort  of 
buttress,  or  projection  of  the  platform,  in  order  to  support  the  column 
with  its  base  on  a  level  with  the  main  floor  of  the  porch,  and  would 
suggest  (in  front  elevation)  the  effect  of  a  pedestal  placed  under  the 
column. 

The  Roman  Theater.  The  Greek  theater  and  stadium,  situated 
as  they  always  were  on  the  natural  slope  of  some  hill,  demanded  no 
consideration  of  exterior  treatment,  but  rather  a  nice  selection  and  use 
of  the  natural  contour  of  the  ground.  The  Romans,  on  the  other  hand, 
disregarded  entirely  the  setting  of  their  buildings  in  such  a  natural 
amphitheater,  and  built  them  without  any  consideration  of  their  con- 
formation to  the  landscape.  This  custom  required  a  treatment  of 
some  sort  for  the  enormous  screen  of  wall  used  to  support  and  enclose 
the  tiers  of  seats  for  the  spectators.  As  a  result  we  have  such  impress- 
ive monuments  as  the  Colosseum  in  Rome  and  the  Amphitheaters  at 
Aries  and  other  places. 

The  Greeks  erected  some  buildings  of  considerable  size,  evidently 
intended  to  be  used  as  gymnasiums  and  having  baths  as  a  minor  part 
of  the  plan.  These  buildings  may  in  turn  have  served  as  the  first  sug- 
gestion for  the  enormous  Baths  afterwards  constructed  by  the  Romans. 
Some  of  the  most  interesting  Roman  remains  are  the  ruins  of  these 
Baths,  of  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  gain  any  adequate  idea  of 
their  immense  size  and  magnificence,  even  from  the  careful  restora- 
of  the  archaeologists. 

The  Basilica.  The  plan  of  the  basilica  or  Roman  law  court  was 
afterwards  adopted  by  the  Christians  as  the  arrangement  best  suited 
for  their  places  of  worship,and  it  is  most  instructive  to  trace  the  gradual 
growth  of  this  simple  plan  into  the  colonnaded  cross  form  that  after- 
wards became  customary. 

Character  of  Roman  Architecture.  Roman  architectural  mon- 
uments are  all  imbued  with  a  feeling  for  tremendous  size,  a  straining 
at  magnificence,  almost  a  theatrical  effect ;  and  are  pompous  and  gran- 
diose in  contrast  to  the  work  of  the  preceding  civilization,  in  which 
refinement  and  taste,  instead  of  a  feeling  for  size  or  display,  were  the 
most  distinguishing  characteristics. 


288 


s  re 

a  •* 

c  i 

«  a 

•  < 


- 

s! 


5  d 

t  s 

~  ^ 

3  a 

«  O 

cc 

=  S 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  179 

This  difference  in  character  caused  a  corresponding  difference 
in  the  effect  of  Roman  architecture,  which  was  emphasized  by  the 
greater  inclination  of  pediment  and  steeper  pitch  of  the  roof ;  an  im- 
pression which  was  further  strengthened  and  defined  by  the  totally 
different  character  and  treatment  in  plan  and  of  Roman  carving  and 
detail. 

The  first  Roman  buildings  were  undoubtedly  erected  by  Greek 
workmen,  under  the  supervision  of  Greek  architects,  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  their  conquerors.  This  is  easily  proved  by  the  character 
of  all  these  early  remains,  such  as  those  at  Cora,  at  Pompeii, and  in  the 
other  early  Roman  cities.  Later,  however,  when  the  actual  workman- 
ship was  perhaps  left  to  the  execution  of  slaves,  sometimes  Greek  and 
sometimes  of  other  origin,  without  proper  supervision,  and  when  the 
architectural  precedents  furnished  by  the  Greeks  had  become  more 
remote,  as  to  distances  of  both  time  and  place;  a  general  decadence  in 
architectural  purity,  exemplified  by  the  lack  of  refinement  in  design, 
became  everywhere  prevalent  throughout  the  Roman  Empire  and  the 
countries  under  its  influence. 

The  pomp  and  luxury  which  had  overtaken  the  nation  expressed 
itself  architecturally  in  the  over-luxuriance  of  carving  and  ornament, 
repressed  neither  by  taste,  refinement,  nor  considerations  of  expense, 
that  very  soon  became  characteristic  of  Roman  architecture.  This 
character  quickly  evidenced  itself  throughout  all  the  colonies  and 
dependencies  of  the  Empire,  and  affected  the  otherwise  local  expres- 
sion of  the  prevailing  architectural  style  native  to  the  district.  It  was 
this  tendency  that  was  responsible  for  the  evolution  of  the  Order 
termed  the  Composite,  which  was  adapted  from  the  Corinthian  form 
with  the  sole  intention  of  allowing  an  excuse  for  more  ornament  and 
carving  than  even  that  elaborate  Order  supplied. 

In  this  decadence,  sight  was  soon  lost  of  all  the  inherent  natural  ex- 
pression embodied  in  the  Greek  Orders  at  the  time  when  the  Romans 
overcame  and  arrested  the  progress  of  Greek  civilization ;  and  con- 
sequently it  soon  becomes  difficult  to  trace  the  growth  of  the  Roman 
column  from  either  stone  or  wood  beginnings.  The  column,  in  attain- 
ing to  a  regularity  of  type,  frequently  becomes  colorless  and  flaccid, 
and  has  lost  much  in  individuality  and  character.  This  gradual 
vulgarization  was  attended,  however,  with  an  increased  surety  and 
facility  in  the  employment  of  the  various  compositions  of  columns  and 


289 


180 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


colonnades.     The  very  process  of  reducing  the  Orders  to  a  "rule," 
with  its  inevitable  loss  of  artistic  expression,  yet  caused  them  to  attain 

an  average  that  made  their 
use  possible — with  a  cer- 
tainty of  not  going  far 
wrong — by  individuals  of 
indifferent  genius  or  archi- 
tectural training. 

This  gradual  degen- 
eration is  well  exemplified 
in  the  cutting  of  the  flut- 
ing of  the  column  shafts. 
Where  the  Greeks  used 
their  best  ingenuity  in  em- 
phasizing, sharpening,  and 
bringing  out  the  raised 
arris  which  separates  the 
flutings  of  their  columns, 
the  Romans,  by  careless 
cutting,  soon  allowed  the 
flutes  to  become  shallow, 

s 

with  the  result  that  the 
fillet  edges  were  not  sharp- 
ly defined  and  the  entire 
shaft  of  the  column  lost 
much  of  its  character.  At 
the  same  time  that  the 
carving  of  the  moulding 
faces  loses  in  character 
and  beauty  of  detail,  it 
grows  more  uninteresting, 
and  in  fact  meaninglessi 
and  is  used  with  less  dis- 
crimination, feeling,  and 
common  sense,  until  the 
carving  is  eventually  so 
placed  as  in  most  in- 


AVTEL-ET  "VASE: 
ANTfoVES 


Fig.  104. 


stances  to  destroy  and  confuse  the  meaning  of  the  various  moulding 
outlines,   themselves  now  much  debased  in  type. 


290 


Decorative  Carved  Panel. 
Festoou  from  Temple  of  Vesta,  Tivoll. 


Decorative  Carved  Panel. 

Eagle  and  Wreath  from  Forum  of  Trajan,  Rome. 
Now  in  Church  of  SS.  Apostoli,  Rome. 


Roman  Doorway. 
From  Corinthian  Temple  of  Jupiter  at  Baalbec,  Syria. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  181 


The  Roman  moulding  sections  followed  the  same  course.  •  Start- 
ing with  the  refined  Greek  outline,  they  became  coarse,  and  rapidly 
deteriorated.  Where  the  Greek1  demanded  a  fine  gradation  and  sub- 
tilty  of  contour,  the  Roman  was  satisfied  with  broad  contrasts  of  black 
and  white,  of  sunlight  and  shadow,  with  little  sub-gradation  of  tone 
or  refinement  in  outline.  The  result  is  easily  traceable  throughout  all 
Roman  architecture.  The  outline  of  the  echinus  moulding  of  the 
Greek  Doric  column,  at  first  imitated  by  the  R.omans,  soon  loses  its 
character,  until,  in  the  Colosseum,  it  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a 
crude  quarter-round  in  section.  The  volute  of  the  Roman  Ionic  cap- 
ital is  crude  when  compared  with  the  refined  moulding  and  more 
minute  working  out  of  its  Greek  prototype.  It  was  but  occasionally 
that,  in  the  carving  of  some  bit  of  elaborate  detail,  the  pleasure  of  the 
artisan,  in  expressing'his  skill  caused  him  to  produce  a  design  of  inter- 
est and  charm  (Fig.  104);  but  this  ornament  is  almost  invariably 
given  a  naturalistic  treatment,  quite  at  variance  with  the  more  deco- 
rative and  conventional  rendering  with  which  the  Greeks  endowed 
even  the  simplest  bits  of  their  architectural  ornament. 

In  adopting  the  Greek  Orders,  the  Romans  were  evidently  much 
more  partial  to  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  forms;  the  latter,  especially, 
they  used  in  many  different  buildings.  As  the  Greeks  had  already 
solved  the  principal  problems  of  the  Orders,  the  Romans,  in  working 
out  their  local  and  individual  types,  concerned  themselves  more  in 
varying  the  details  and  mouldings  to  suit  their  own  ideas. 

The  precedents  offered  by  the  Roman  work  to  which  we  can  refer, 
vary  in  detail  and  proportion  in  a  much  less  degree  than  was  true  of  the 
Greek  Orders.  This  is  because  of  the  fact  that  the  earlier  buildings 
were  almost  entirely  destroyed,  or  that,  having  accepted  the  Greek 
Orders  as  a  basis,  the  Romans  cared  to  make  few  experiments  except 
in  working  out  more  elaborately  the  details  of  the  various  "parts.  It 
will  also  be  noticed  tliht  the  dates  of-exqpution  of  Roman  work  do  net 
furnish  the  same  standard  for  judging  of  its  merit  as  was  almost  in- 
variably applicable  in  the  case  of  Greek  architecture.  Some  Roman 
work  of  late  date  vies  in  execution  with  that  of  the  best  early  periods 
in  its  proportionsvmassing,  and  composition  of  members  and  details. 

There  are  comparatively  few  examples  showing  the  Roman  usage 
of  the  Doric  and  Ionic  Orders,  remaining  in  anywhere  near  a  com- 
plete state  of  preservation,  in  Rome  itself;  while  of  the  buildings  in 


291 


182 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


•Cornice. 


Friete 


•Ardu.fcra.Ye 


which  'the  Corinthian  and  Composite  Orders  were  used,  there  are 
many  fine  remains.  Whether  it  was  that  the  Romans  actually  but 
seldom  used  these  forms,  or  whether,  in  the  constant  demolition  of 
earlier  work  by  each  succeeding  Roman  ruler,  these  buildings  were 

effectually  destroyed,  it  is  now 
rather  difficult  to  say.  However, 
the  many  capitals  of  early  Ionic 
design  used  in  later  buildings, 
show  by  their  varying  character 
of  workmanship  and  material 
that  the  latter  alternative  may 
have  been  the  actual  case. 

THE  ROMAN  ORDERS 

The  Roman  Order  is  prop- 
erly composed  of  three  parts — 
the  Column,  the  Entablature,  and 
the  Pedestal,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
105.  The  pedestal  is  often 
omitted  in  modern  work;  and 
the  term  Order,  as  has  already 
been  stated,  may  be  applied  as 
well  to  the  column  and  entabla- 
ture when  used  together,  as  to  the 
complete  Order. 

Each  of  the  three  main  divi- 
sions of  the  Order  is  also  divided 
into  three  parts.  The  central 
portion  of  the  column  is  known  as 
the  shaft;  the  lower  portion  is 
called  the  base;  and  the  upper 
portion,  the  capital  or  cap. 

The  entablature,  which  is 
that  portion  of  the  Order  occur- 
ring over  the  column,  is  composed 


Ca     • 


Die. 


Fig.  105. 


of  the  architrave  or  plate-band,  which  rests  upon  the  column  and 
which  is  itself  divided  into  several  bands  or  fascias;  the  frieze  or 
plain  portion,  just  above,  sometimes  decorated  with  sculpture;  and 


292 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  183 

the  cornice  or  projecting  part,  formed  of  two  main  divisions — the 
bed-mould  and  the  cymatium  or  cap,  the  latter  the  crowning  member 
intended  to  throw  off  the  rain-water  and  partially  protect  the  sides  of 
the  building  from  the  weather. 

The  pedestal  is  composed,  like  the  other  main  divisions,  of  three 
parts — the  central  plain  portion  known  as  the  die  or  dado;  the  low- 
er projecting  part,  called  the  base;  and  the  upper  projecting  part,  called 
the  cap  or  cymatium.  Most  of  these  main  parts  are  again  sub- 
divided into  many  others  called  mouldings  or  members,  which  are 
further  described  in  detail  in  each  of  the  plates. 

The  Tuscan  Order.  There  are  five  Roman  Orders,  one  of  which 
— known  as  the  Tuscan  (Fig.  6,  Part  I) — should  be  placed  before 
the  Doric,  and  is  of  much  less  importance  than  any  of  the  others, 
although  it  was  occasionally  used  in  the  lower  or  basement  story  of  a 
building.  This  Order  may  possibly  have  been  a  combination  of 
the  Greek  Doric  with  some  characteristics  taken  from  the  Etruscan 
Orders,  although,  as  it  is  now  composed,  it  is  probably  most  largely 
a  creation  of  the  Renaissance,  founded  upon  some  of  the  cruder 
remains  and  simpler  experiments  by  the  Romans  in  the  use  of  the 
Doric  Order. 

This  Tuscan  Order  may  be  largely  disregarded  in  the  present 
treatise,  as  its  possibilities  for  use  in  modern  work  are  very  limited. 
It  has  seldom  been  used  since  Roman  times,  although  a  few  good  ex- 
amples are  found  among  the  works  of  the  Italian  and  the  English 
Renaissance.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  its  one  invariable  character- 
istic is  in  regard  to  the  shaft  of  the  column  itself,  which  is  always  plain 
and  never  fluted.  In  fact,  simplicity  is  the  chief  intention  of  the 
Tuscan  Order.  The  mouldings  are  themselves  so  few,  so  simple, 
and  so  large  in  size  that  the  effect  is  even  almost  inclined  to  be  one  of 
crudity  rather  than  simplicity. 

The  Composite  Order.  The  Romans  also  invented  an  Order 
termed  the  Composite,  drawn  out  more  in  detail  in  Plates  LV  and 
LVI,  in  which  an  interesting  method  of  proportioning  the  various 
parts  of  this  Order  is  shown.  Just  as  the  Tuscan  column  may  be 
considered  as  merely  a  simplified  form  of  the  Doric,  so  the  Com- 
posite Order  is  a  more  elaborate  form  of  the  Corinthian,  and  was 
used  only  for  purposes  of  extreme  display  and  ornamentation.  The 
general  proportions  of  this  Order  are  almost  exactly  the  same  as 


293 


184  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

those  of  the  Corinthian;  and  its  minor  details,  while  similar,  are 
even  more  elaborately  ornamented.  The  capital  is  an  evident  com- 
bination of  the  principal  Ionic  and  Corinthian  features,  and  the  en- 
tablature is  most  richly  moulded  and  carved. 

These  various  Orders  each  re'sulted  from  the  caprice  of  the  all- 
conquering  Romans,  whose  desire  was  that  Rome  should  make  an 
apparent  advance  over  the  civilizations  which  she  had  absorbed. 

Vignola.  Inasmuch  as  it  is  from  the  Roman  use  of  the  Orders 
that  we  inherit — through  the  medium,  principally,  of  Vignola — our 
present  Classical  forms,  it  will  be  interesting  to  consider  for  one 
moment  the  reliability  of  this  authority,  in  order  to  determine  how 
much  dependence  we  should  place  upon  his  versions. 

The  generally  accepted  standards  in  Classical  Roman  work  are 
the  Orders  as  given  by  Vignola.  His  study  of  Classical  architecture 
was  made  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  from  careful 
measurements  of  then-existing  Roman  work;  and  since  that  time  "The. 
Orders  of  Architecture,  according  to  Giacomo  Barozzioda  Vignola," 
in  both  Europe  and  America,  has  been  accepted  as  the  standard 
authority.  The  first  edition  of  this  book  was  published  in  Rome  in 
1563,  and  was  followed  by  other  similar  publications  arranged  by 
such  men  as  Palladio,  Scamozzi,  Alberti,  Normand,  James  Gibbs, 
Sir  William  Chambers,  and  others.  Each  of  these  authorities,  while 
founding  his  version  of  the  Orders  upon  that  of  Vignola,  has  also 
made  some  modifications  in  type  and  detail,  adapting  the  Orders,  in 
part  unconsciously,  to  the  custom  and  habit  of  his  time,  as  well  as 
incorporating  changes  which  his  own  experience  and  practice  had  sug- 
gested. It  is  therefore  rather  to  be  expected  that  the  various  type 
forms  advocated  by  these  masters  and  used  by  them  in  their  own  prac- 
tice are  in  reality  Renaissance  Orders  rather  than  Roman  ones;  but, 
inasmuch  as  they  follow  the  Roman  rather  than  the  Greek  type,  the 
former  title  is  still  broadly  applicable  to  them,  while  the  true  Roman 
work  may  better  be  termed,  for  purposes  of  distinction,  Classic  Roman 
architecture. 

Unit  of  Measurement  of  the  Orders.  Referring  to  Fig.  106, 
"The  Parallel  of  the  Orders,"  it  will  be  possible  to  take  up  the  con- 
sideration of  the  main  divisions  of  the  three  principal  Roman  Orders. 
The  unit  of  measurement  is  again  subdivided  into  two  modules  or 
semi-diameters.  The  module  is  further  divided,  in  the  accompanying 


294 


-<X-*>i-Z 


d  6 


-  s 


8 

I 


fin,"?. 


as- 


r 


1 


l 


ll 


T 


295 


186  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

illustrations  and  plates,  sometimes  into  twelve  parts,  for  the  Tuscan 
and  Doric  Orders;  into  eighteen,  for  the  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Com- 
posite; and  sometimes  into  thirty  parts,  as  in  the  Greek  work.  The 
scales  shown  on  the  plates  are  interchangeable,  and  may  be  used  with 
either  system,  five  parts  of  the  latter  exactly  equaling  three  parts  of  the 
Ionic  and  Corinthian  eighteen  divisions,  or  two  parts  of  the  twelve 
divisions  of  the  Doric  Order.  The  general  proportion  of  the  heights 
of  the  columns  of  these  five  Orders  is : — in  the  Roman  Tuscan  Order, 
seven  diameters;  in  the  Doric  Order,  eight  diameters;  in  the  Ionic 
Order,  nine  diameters;  in  the  Corinthian  and  Composite  Orders,  ten 
diameters.  The  height  of  the  entablature  is  always  one-fourth  the 
height  of  the  column ;  thus,  in  the  Tuscan  Order,  it  is  one  and  three- 
fourths  diameters;  in  the  Doric,  two  diameters;  in  the  Ionic,  two  and 
one-fourth  diameters;  and  in  the  Corinthian  and  Composite,  two  and 
one-half  diameters.  This  general  statement  of  the  proportions  of  the 
five  Orders  should  be  sufficient,  at  least  so  far  as  regards  the  first  and 
last  of  the  series;  but  the  three  principal  Orders  require  more  specific 
consideration. 

At  the  right  of  the  Roman  Orders  (Fig.  106),  are  shown  dimen- 
sion lines  marked  for  proportionate  divisions  in  height,  these  divisions 
being  determined  according  to  the  unit  of  measurement  indicated;  the 
letter  D  standing  for  diameter  and  M  for  the  module,  or  one-half 
diameter.  These  three  columns  are  all  of  the  same  size  and  dimension 
at  the  base,  so  the  unit  of  measurement  throughout  is  of  the  same 
length. 

The  Pedestal.  The  Roman  Orders  are  all  shown  with  a  pedestal, 
which  is  never  employed  with  any  of  the  Greek  columns.  These  ped- 
estals, in  the  examples  shown,  give  the  effect  of  being  rather  slender 
for  their  height.  This  is  caused,  in  part,  by  the  base  being  so  narrow, 
and  the  die  or  central  plain  portion,  as  it  is  here  drawn  out,  too  high. 
Many  authorities  place  the  crown  moulding  of  the  base  much  higher 
on  the  die  than  the  one  here  followed,  and  utilize  a  plain  plinth 
below  the  base-mould  to  take  up  the  extra  height. 

General  Proportions  of  the  Orders.  The  Roman  Doric  Order 
(Fig.  106),  it  is  evident  at  the  first  glance,  is  radically  different  from  its 
Greek  prototype.  This  appears  in  the  mouldings  of  the  cap,  in  the 
base,  in  the  proportions  of  the  entablature,  and  its  triglyph  arrange- 
ment and  treatment.  This  example,  taken  from  Vignola,  is  supposed 


396 


187 


to  have  been  somewhat  closely  adapted  by  him  from  the  Doric  Order 
used  in  the  Theater  of  Marcellus  at  Rome;  although  he  embodied 
some  considerable  changes  from  the  original  in  this  attempt  at  deter- 
mining a  satisfactory  type  form.  The  height  of  the  column  capital, 
including  the  necking,  is  one  module  or  one-half  diameter.  The  col- 
umn base  is  the  same  height.  The  height  of  the  entablature  is  two 
diameters;  the  architrave  being  one  module,  the  frieze  being  one  and 
one-half,  and  the  cornice  one  and  one-half  modules  in  height  and  two 
modules  in  projection.  The  pedestal  is  two  and  four-sixths  diameters 
high;  with  a  base  of  five-sixths  module,  a  cap  of  one-half  module,  and 
a  die  of  four  modules  in  height. 

The  Roman  Ionic  Order,  with  a  column  nine  diameters  or  eigh- 
teen modules  in  height,  has  a  pedestal  three  diameters  high;  of  which 
five  modules  are  reserved  for  the  die,  one-half  module  being  for  the  cap 
and  base  respectively.  In  the  column  the  base  is  one  module  in 
height;  while  the  capital,  from  the  necking  up,  is  two-thirds  of  a 
module  high,  and  from  the  bottom  edge  of  the  volute  to  the  top  of  the 
abacus  it  is  one  module.  The  entablature  is  two  and  one-fourth 
diameters  over  all,  which  height  is  divided  among  the  separate  parts 
as  follows:  —  the  architrave  has  one  and  one-fourth  modules;  the 
frieze,  one  and  three-fourths  modules;  and  the  cornice  is  two 
modules  high  and  projects  one  module  and  thirteen  parts. 

The  Corinthian  column  in  Fig.  106  is  ten  diameters  high.  The 
pedestal  is  three  and  one-half  diameters  in  height,  with  five  modules 
and  ten  parts  as  the  height  of  the  die,  two-thirds  of  a  module  for  the 
base,  and  seven-ninths  of  a  module  for  the  cap.  The  base  of  the  col- 
umn is  again  one  module  in  height.  The  capital  is  two  and  one-third 
modules  high.  As  will  be  seen,  the  extra  diameter  in  the  height  of  the 
column  is  practically  taken  care  of  in  the  bell  of  the  capital.  The 
entablature  is  two  and  one-half  diameters  high,  bearing  the  same 
relations  to  the  column  as  in  the  two  other  Orders;  and  of  this  height, 
one  and  one-half  modules  are  given  to  the  architrave,  one  and  one-half 
modules  to  the  frieze,  and  two  modules  to  the  cornice,  which  in  turn 
projects  two  modules  and  two  parts. 

EARLY  ROMAN  DORIC 

All  varieties  of  Roman  columns,  other  than  those  distinctly 
marked  by  the  design  of  their  capitals  as  Ionic,  Corinthian,  or  Com- 


297 


188  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

posite,  are  termed  Tuscan  (Etruscan),  unless  it  is  known  that  the 
frieze  is  decorated  with  triglyphs,  which  in  Roman  work  thus  again 
become  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Doric  Order. 

There  are  but  three  instances  of  the  use  of  the  Doric  Order  in 
Rome  itself,  although  it  was  often  employed  in  Pompeii,  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Northern  Africa;  and  the  few  other  Italian  examples  are 
almost  invariably  circumscribed  by  individual  peculiarities  in  each 
particular  case,  and  are  probably  the  product  of  Greek  workmen  and 
closely  copied  from  Greek  Doric  forms. 

Difference  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Doric  Orders.  All  the 
Roman  orders  differ  in  the  relation  of  the  column  heights  to  their 
diameters,  but  a  certain  amount  of  resemblance  is  traceable  to  the 
earlier  Greek  form  in  both  the  Ionic  and  the  Corinthian.  This  is 
perhaps  least  true  of  the  typical  Roman  Doric,  taking  the  form  given 
by  Vignola  as  typical,  as  this  Roman  Doric  column  is  less  like  the 
Greek  form  than  either  of  the  other  Orders. 

The  Doric  column  of  the  Romans  is  eight  diameters  in  height  as 
compared  to  the  seven  diameters  of  the  Greek  Order,  and  is  one- 
seventh  of  its  base  diameter  less  at  the  neck;  and  it  therefore  differs, 
by  the  height  of  an  entire  diameter  more  than  the  other  Roman 
Orders,  from  the  general  proportions  of  the  Greek  originals. 

Aside  from  differences  of  proportion  in  the  column  shaft  itself, 
and  the  different  method  of  fluting  the  late  Roman  column,  there  is  a 
very  radical  difference  in  the  treatment  of  the  entablature;  while  Vig- 
nola has  given  in  the  pedestal  an  addition  which  first  appears  in  the 
architecture  of  the  Romans.  There  is  very  reasonable  doubt  whether 
any  true  Roman  precedent  can  be  found  to  sanction  the  use  of  this 
innovation  with  any  Order,  least  of  all  with  the  Doric  column.  In  the 
Temple  at  Cora,  which  must  be  considered  as  of  Greek  workmanship 
even  though  occurring  under  the  Roman  regime,  the  apparent  pedestal 
shown  in  Fig.  107  is  really  a  large  buttress  confining  the  step  approach 
to  the  Temple.  This  cut  also  illustrates  the  close  relationship  that 
exists  between  the  early  Roman  work  and  its  Greek  originals. 

The  Roman  Doric  Order,  as  used  in  the  first  examples,  varied  but 
little  from  the  preceding  Greek  types.  The  column  generally  has  no 
base,  while  the  echinus  and  the  fluting  of  the  column  closely  follow 
the  Greek  sections. 


298 


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D  2 

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O  S 

s 
6  a 

—  o 


190  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

Temple  at  Cora,  Italy.  The  only  extant  example  of  a  rectangular 
Roman  Doric  temple  is  the  one  at  Cora,  the  exact  date  of  which  is  not 
known;  but  from  probably  contemporaneous  remains,  it  has  been 
thought  that  it  is  at  least  as  early  as  80  B.  C.  In  the  remains  of  this 
temple  (Fig.  107),  the  column,  although  given  a  base,  otherwise  very 
closely  resembles  the  Greek  Doric  Order;  and  the  triglyph  is  placed  on 
the  corner  angle  of  the  building  after  the  Greek  custom. 

Fig.  107  is  a  reproduction  of  one  of  the  famous  Brune  drawings 
now  owned  by  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  The  tem- 
ple is  square  in  plan,  has  a  four-column  or  hexastyle  portico,  and  in 
the  main  differs  but  little  from  preceding  Greek  work.  The  cornice 
includes  a  mutule  over  the  metope,  and  a  triglyph  used  on  each  face  of 
the  corner  angles ;  and  many  of  the  moulding  sections,  as  well  as  the 
fluting  of  the  columns,  are  distinctively  Greek.  On  the  other  hand 
the  triglyphs  are  of  different  proportions,  and  the  column  has  a  base; 
while  other  of  the  mouldings — such,  for  instance,  as  those  on  the  antse 
or  pilasters — indicate  the  effects  of  Roman  influence.  This  drawing 
is  so  arranged  that  the  cornice  is  shown  complete,  with  a  part  of  the 
tile  roof;  and  the  column  is  cut  so  that  the  necking  and  the  base,  with 
the  crowning  mouldings  of  the  stylobate  or  pedestal  are  both  plainly 
displayed;  while  a  plan  of  the  underside  or  soffit  of  the  cornice  is 
shown  at  the  right  of  the  column.  This  pedestal  is  in  reality  only  a 
projecting  buttress,  enclosing  the  space  of  the  step  approach,  its  top 
being  level  with  the  floor  of  the  platform  or  stylobate.  These  early 
buildings  were  probably  all  executed  by  Greek  workmen,  which  ex- 
plains their  close  adherence  to  the  Greek  forms. 

Use  of  Triglyph  at  Corner  Angle.  In  all  the  early  examples  of  the 
use  of  the  Roman  Doric  Order  employed  in  buildings  square  or  rec- 
tangular in  plan,  the  triglyph  is  used  on  the  corner  of  the  angle  after 
the  Greek  fashion,  as  is  further  shown  in  the  drawings  of  fragments  of 
the  Roman  remains  at  Cora,  the  modern  Cori.  (Figs.  107  and  109). 

The  Temple  at  Cora,  as  well  as  some  remains  of  Roman  Doric 
temples  dating  from  about  200  B.  C.  and  possibly  restored  at  a  later 
period,  indicates,  by  the  narrow  intercolumniation  at  the  corner,  as 
shown  on  the  old  floor  plan,  that  the  triglyphs  occurred  on  the  angle 
after  the  Greek  fashion.  On  the  tomb  of  Scipio  (Fig.  108)  and  the 
two  tombs  at  Norchia,  as  well  as  on  the  pedestals  shown  in  Fig.  109, 
the  triglyphs  always  occur  on  the  angles.  In  the  three  uses  of  this 


300 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  191 

Order  in  Rome — the  Tabularium,  the  Theater  of  Marcellus,  and  the 
Colosseum — the  problem  of  the  corner  angle  is  not  presented,  on  ac- 
count of  the  circular  plan  of  the  building  and  the  form  and  treatment 
of  the  Order  in  each  case. 

Fragments  from  Temple  at  Cora.  The  fragments  of  architectural 
design  gathered  together  in  Fig.  109 — which  reproduces  another  of  the 
beautiful  drawings  by  Emanuel  Brune  and  is  probably  one  of  the  most 


i  i  miTTTTTfn  i 


Fig.  108. 

interesting  architectural  renderings  in  existence,  both  on  account  of  the 
beauty  of  the  details  selected  and  also  on  account  of  the  brilliant  drafts- 
manship shown  in  the  execution  of  the  drawing — were  taken  from  the 
ancient  Roman  temples  at  Cora,  Italy,  and  show,  along  with  the  sev- 
eral interesting  Doric  details,  a  few  of  more  elaborate  character.  At 
the  bottom  and  left  of  the  drawing  is  a  fluted  pedestal,  such  as  might 
be  employed  to  carry  a  figure  or  some  other  piece  of  sculpture.  Then,  in 
the  foreground,  is  shown  the  base  of  a  fluted  column  of  the  Attic  type. 
Above  this  is  a  most  beautiful  drawing  of  a  Corinthian  capital,  with 
interesting  variations  from  the  strictly  Classical  type  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  some  of  the  leaf  forms,  and  especially  in  two  horns  or  tendrils 
inserted  in  the  position  usually  occupied  by  the  smaller  volutes.  The 
acanthus  leaves  of  the  capital  are  notably  crisp  and  strong  in  treat- 
ment; they  follow  closely  the  outline  of  the  column,  and  end  at  the  top 
in  a  spiral,  strongly  supported  and  yet  with  a  graceful  outward  bend. 
(This  capital  will  afterward  be  referred  to  in  the  description  of  the 
Corinthian  Order.)  A  little  further  to  the  right  are  two  examples  of 
Doric  capitals,  showing  portions  of  the  neck  and  bases  of  the  columns. 


301 


Fig.  109.    Fragments  from  early  Roman  Temples  at  Cori,  Italy. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  193 


Beyond  these  is  another  portion  of  a  column  base,  probably  used  with 
a  Corinthian  or  Ionic  column,  here  carrying  a  small  fragment  with 
mask  decoration. 

The  two  moulded  bases  described  above  show  evident  experi- 
ments on  the  part  of  their  designers  in  the  use  of  this  form  of  base.  In 
the  one  last  mentioned,  two  torus  mouldings  are  separated  only  by  a 
fillet;  while  in  the  one  first  mentioned,  there  is  a  very  narrow  and  ap- 
parently much  crushed  hollow  member  between  the  fillets  separating 
the  torus  mouldings. 

These  fragments  are  all  placed  in  front  of  a  cornice  with  beauti- 
fully carved  egg-and-dart  and  bead-and-reel  mouldings,  supporting 
rather  awkwardly-proportioned  brackets  carrying  the  crowning  mem- 
bers of  the  cornice.  Above  this  cornice,  in  the  center  of  the  drawing, 
is  a  base  supporting  a  capital  of  rather  unusual  design.  In  the  center 
of  each  side,  occupying  the  space  between  the  volutes,  is  a  severely 
classic  head  of  Minerva.  The  corners  are  supported  by  simple  but 
strong  and  heavy  volutes.  The  abacus  is  similar  to  that  on  the  early 
Corinthian  capitals.  At  the  right  and  left  of  this  capital  are  pedestals 
carrying  Doric  cornices  not  unlike  in  treatment  to  the  cornice  of  the 
Tomb  of  Scipio.  In  the  background  are  several  pieces  of  architec- 
tural fragments.  Another  round  pedestal  is  here  placed  at  the  left 
of  the  plate;  while  the  tall  square  pedestal  carries  a  small  ante-fix  dec- 
orated with  a  Greek  anthemion  motif.  At  the  right  is  a  panel  of  letter- 
ing, and  above  this  an  ornamental  cresting  of  a  honeysuckle  motif, 
which  shows  in  the  reproduction  almost  as  dark  as  the  Classic  land- 
scape in  the  distance. 

The  beautiful  lettering  in  this  panel,  and  also  on  the  face  of  the 
square  pedestal  immediately  in  front  of  it,  should  be  noticed.  All  the 
details  shown  on  this  plate  are  thoroughly  Greek  in  both  treatment  and 
feeling,  and  were  undoubtedly  executed  by  Greek  workmen  and  archi- 
tects, at  an  early  period  in  the  development  of  Roman  architecture. 

CLASSIC  ROMAN  DORIC 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  in  Roman  buildings  the  earlier  usage 
followed  very  closely  the  Greek  models  in  the  position  of  the  triglyph, 
and  in  the  sections  of  the  mouldings  themselves;  but  the  real  Roman 
Doric  Order  is  that  shown  in  their  later  work.  By  the  time  of  the 
building  of  the  Theater  of  Marcellus  (B.  C.  33-13),  the  Order  had 


303 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


taken  on  a  distinctly  Roman  character,  both  in  the  treatment  of  the 
mouldings  and  in  its  general  proportions.     By  referring  to  Fig.  110, 


DORIC? 

ENTABL/I 


Fig.  110. 

it  will  be  seen  how  different  the  employment  of  this  Order  was  from 
the  Greek  Doric.     The  use  of  the  dentil  and  treatment  of  the  soffit  are 


304 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


195 


quite  distinctive,  and  even  when  the  Greek  form  of  mutule  is  used,  it 
is  with  essential  differences  of  detail.  This  example  is  generally 
shown  without  a  base  to  the  column;  in  later  Roman  usage,  however, 
it  is  quite  safe  to  include  a  simple  base  as  an  essential  part  of  the  Doric 
Order.  This  may  have  been  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Etruscans, 
who  usually  employed  a  simple  base  on  their  crude  columns.  In 
Fig.  Ill  are  shown  four  examples  of  Roman  Doric  bases.  Two  of 


'    ( 

r 

,->      : 

^>  ! 

<^_ 

f"  1 

1 

— 

( 

^                  1 

J 

1 

1 

I 

~~1 
1 

ALB  AMI 
< 


VIGWOLA  DENT.     PAJLLADIO 


VIGNOLA  MUTULAR 
<C 


Fig.  111. 

these  (B  and  D)  are  from  Vignola,  one  (C)  from  Palladio,  and  one  (A) 
from  an  old  example  at  Albani  near  Rome.  The  base  at  Cora,  Fig. 
107,  very  closely  resembles  that  shown  at  B  in  this  figure,  with  the 
small  half-round  below  the  fillet  omitted.  This  base  (B)  is  that  used 
by  Vignola  in  his  denticular  Order,  while  he  assigns  the  section  at  D 
to  the  mutular  form. 

Use  of  Column  in  Connection  with  Arcade — The  Tabularium. 
The  Tabularium  at  Rome,  built  by  Catullus  in  78  B.  C.,  carries  the 
earliest  known  use  of  the  Doric  column  employed  to  separate  the  arches 
of  an  arcade,  after  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  99.  This  structure  was 
built  against  the  Capitoline  Hill,  and  presented  a  face  of  immense  wall, 
carrying,  thirty-six  feet  above  the  ground,  a  series  of  arches  facing 
toward  the  Forum  and  supported  on  piers. 

The  next  examples,  in  chronological  sequence,  are  those  in  the 
Theater  of  Marcellus,  23  B.  C.  (Fig.  113),  and  in  the  Colosseum,  72 
A.  D.  (Fig.  112).  In  both  these  cases,  the  columns  are  engaged  and 
set  upon  a  continuous  course  or  footing,  which  may  be  considered  as 
suggesting  the  individual  column  pedestal  shown  by  Vignola.  The 


305 


198 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


•DORIC  ORDER; 


ULJUL1ULJ 


JDUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU 


oooooo 
oooooo 

OOOOOO 


•THEATREOP 
•MARCELLVS* 


Fig.  113. 


mouldings  of  the  Theater  of  Mar- 
cellus  and  the  Tabularium  are 
suggestively  Greek  in  character, 
while  in  the  Colosseum  the 
moulding  sections  are  almost 
thoroughly  Roman  in  outline  and 
the  Orders  are  all  of  a  more  or- 
dinary type.  All  three  of  these 
buildings  are  in  Rome,  and  the 
two  last  are  also  the  two  best 
known  examples  of  the  use  of  the 
Roman  Doric  Order. 

The  Colosseum.  The  Colos- 
seum is  undoubtedly  the  best 
known  amphitheater,  and,  while 
commenced  in  72  A.  D.  by  Ves- 
pasian, was  continued  by  Titus, 
and  finally  inaugurated  by  Domi- 
tian  in  82  A.  D.  At  this  time 
the  three  lower  stories  only  were 
completed.  These  stories  are 
each  decorated  on  the  face  by  an 
attached  Order,  the  lowest  being 
Tuscan  (there  are  no  triglyphs 
in  the  frieze),  with  mouldings 
following  more  the  Etruscan  than 
the  Greek  section.  The  second 
story  is  decorated  with  an  Ionic 
Order,  and  the  third  with  a  Co- 
rinthian, set  on  a  dado  breaking 
out  to  form  a  sort  of  pedestal 
underneath  each  column  shaft. 
The  entablatures  are  all  carried 
around  the  building  without  any 
break.  The  top  story,  above  the 
arcades,  was  not  added  until  the 
early  part  of  the  third  century 
A.  D. 


Detail  of  Theater  of  Marcellus,  Rome. 

Showing  Roman  use  of  ionic  Order  over  Doric:  also  characteristic  "engaged"  columns  and 
arcade  treatment.— Restored  by  Ch.  Girault  and  K.  Poulin. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  199 

Theater  of  Marcellus.  In  Fig.  113  is  drawn  out  the  Roman 
Doric  Order  from  the  Theater  of  Marcellus.  This  shaft  is  shown 
rising  directly  from  a  series  of  steps.  Later  discoveries  seem  to  in- 
dicate that  this  shaft  had  a  very  simple  base  treatment.  Fig.  110  is  a 
perspective  of  a  supposititious  corner  angle  showing  the  use  of  a 
Roman  Order,  with  details  taken  from  the  Theater  of  Marcellus. 
This  example  of  a  Doric  Order — with  the  cornice  falsely  shown  as 
though  broken  around  an  outer  angle  or  corner  of  the  building — is  not 
typical,  in  that  it  omits  entirely  the  mutule  in  the  cornice.  The  mu- 
tule  is  as  important  a  part  of  the  general  use  of  the  Roman  Doric  Order 
as  it  was  of  the  Greek,  save  that  in  the  later  Roman  usage  the  mutule 
was  never  spaced  over  the  metope,  but  the  soffit  of  the  cornice  from 
mutule  to  mutule  was  rilled  by  means  of  a  decorated  panel.  This 
particular  cornice  carries  a  row  of  dentils  in  place  of  the  mutules, 
while  a  panel  in  the  soffit  occurring  over  the  triglyph  is  filled  with  de- 
pendent guttse ;  and  the  Order  shown  here  and  in  Plate  VII,  accom- 
panying Part  I,  may  be  more  appropriately  termed  Denticular  Doric, 
an  invention  of  the  Romans.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  we  have  no 
authentic  Roman  example  in  which  this  corner  treatment  has  been 
actually  employed.  Vignola,  in  placing  his  triglyph  and  metope  over 
the  center  of  the  column  and  leaving  the  corner  angle  plain,  as  is 
shown  in  this  perspective  sketch,  seems  to  have  taken  it  for  granted 
that  the  Romans,  in  case  they  employed  the  Order  in  this  way,  would 
so  have  treated  the  external  angle  of  the  frieze.  But  in  the  best  late 
Roman  instance  of  the  use  of  this  Order,  the  Theater  of  Marcellus — 
and  that,  too,  the  instance  on  which  Vignola  is  supposed  to  have  found- 
ed his  version  of  the  Order — there  is  no  such  corner  angle  treatment, 
the  building  itself  being  circular  or  elliptical  in  plan,  and  therefore 
requiring  no  angle  treatment  whatsoever. 

The  Pedestal  of  the  Order.  The  possible  derivation  of  the  ped- 
estal treatment  is  suggested  in  Fig.  125,  where  the  Ionic  Order  of  the 
Theater  of  Marcellus  is  drawn  out.  It  is  here  seen  that  the  pedestal 
and  its  cap  form  a  continuous  belt  course,  merely  breaking  out  around 
the  projecting  column;  but  the  actual  effect  in  the  building  is  more 
that  of  a  continuous  dado,  upon  which  are  set  the  column  shafts. 
The  reason  for  this  is  evident,  as  otherwise  the  projecting  cornice  of 
the  lower  Order,  the  Doric,  would  completely  cut  off  the  lower  portion 
of  the  Ionic  column  shaft  when  seen  from  the  ordinary  ground  level. 


309 


200 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is,  in  Roman  usage,  no  instance  of  what 
may  strictly  speaking  be  termed  a  "pedestal"  occurring  with  any 
Order;  and  such  apparent  instances  may  be  traced  to  one  of  the  two 
methods  already  mentioned  as  used  on  the  Colosseum  or  on  the  Tem- 
ple at  Cora.  In  Syria  there  are  a  few  examples  of  pedestals,  as  at 
Kanawat,  Mousmieh,  Palmyra,  and  the  Propylsea  at  Baalbec;  but  in 
the  temples,  theaters,  and  amphitheaters  of  Rome  they  do  not  exist, 
except  as  parts  of  an  attic  or  dado  required  to  allow  a  space  for  the 
vaulting  of  the  lower  story,  as  in  the  Colosseum,  or  as  a  buttress 
used  to  bound  the  stepped  approach  to  a  temple,  as  in  the  Temple  at 
Cora. 

There  is,  moreover,  no  late  and  purely  Roman  form  of  the  Doric 
Order  used  in  a  building  where  an  angle  treatment  of  the  entablature 


J? 


71 


/\ 


\7 


/\ 


UULJUULJ 


/TRIGLYPH' 


Fig.  114. 

has  been  required.  This  liberty  of  Vignola's,  as  well  as  the  similar  one 
where  he  has  bestowed  a  pedestal  under  the  Roman  column,  is  not 
considered  to  have  adequate  foundation  in  true  Roman  work,  although 
it  undoubtedly  expresses  the  general  custom  or  usage  during  the  Ren- 
aissance period. 


310 


201 


Vignola's  Mutular  Roman  Doric.  The  mutular  Roman  Doric, 
according  to  Vignola,  is  shown  in  Plate  IX,  Part  I.  The  entablature, 
as  already  stated,  is  one-quarter  of  the  column  height;  and  the  cap- 
ital— one  module  in  height — occurs  directly  under  the  triglyph  in  the 
frieze,  which  is  itself  a  module  in  breadth.  This  triglyph  is  shown 
more  particularly  in  Fig.  114;  and  by  referring  to  this  illustration,  its 
peculiarities  may  be  more  readily  comprehended  and  understood. 
At  the  left  is  shown  a  view  of  the  end  or  side  of  the  triglyph ;  while,  be- 
side it,  is  the  elevation  of  the  front,  with  a  section  through  the  channels 
(canals)  on  its  face.  Below  is  shown  a  plan  looking  up  at  the  guttae 
hanging  from  it;  while  at  the  right  is  a  perspective  of  the  triglyph, 
which  should  be  self-explanatory.  It  will  be  observed  that  half  of  the 
guttse  are  shown  circular  in  plan ;  and  half,  square  or  rectangular.  The 
circular,  conical  shape  is  that  more  often  used;  but  the  square,  py- 
ramidal form  occurs  in  many  examples.  The  triglyph  in  Plate  IX, 
Part  I,  is  considered  as  always  being  placed  over  the  columns  and 
on  the  same  axis,  although  this  deduction  rests  on  perhaps  insufficient 
foundation,  as  we  have  already  seen.  Between  the  triglyphs  is  al- 
lowed one  and  one-half  modules,  or,  in  distance,  a  space  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  frieze.  This  is  kept  for  the  metope,  which  in  old  ex- 
amples is  always  square,  or  ap- 
parently square.  These  spaces 
were  sometimes  ornamented  by 
carvings  of  different  objects,  such 
as  heads  of  animals,  trophies  of 
arms,  etc.— a  custom  borrowed 
from  the  Greeks,  and  derived,  as 
we  know,  from  the  placing  of  ac- 
tual objects  in  the  open  space 
over  the  lintel  beam. 

The    Roman    Doric    Order 

shown  in  this  plate  is  of  very  good  general  proportions,  and  such  as 
would  actually  be  used  on  the  ground  story  of  a  building  or  in  the 
lower  part  of  a  monumental  design.  The  pedestal  may  be  sup- 
pressed, as  the  ancients  indeed  seldom  used  it  except  when  they 
carried  the  Order  on  an  uninterrupted  pedestal-base  for  the  purpose 
of  raising  it  above  a  projecting  belt  course.  The  shaft  of  this 
column  is  sometimes  channeled  with  twenty  channels,  separated  from 


311 


202 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


each  other  by  a  sharp  arris  after  the  Greek  fashion,  and  is  as  often 


UUUUUUUUUUL 


oooooo 
oooooo 
oooooo 


Fig.  116. 

left  plain ;  while  it  is  occasionally  channeled  as  shown  on  the  right 
side  of  the  column  in  Plate  IX,  Part  I,  which  treatment,  for  work  of  a 


UO/J/JU/JI  OULAj/JLiLi 


NEAR--RDME? 


Fig.  117. 
distinctly   modern   character,    is   perhaps   more   appropriate.     This 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


203 


plate  also  shows  the  use  of  the  Roman  mutule,  which  is  drawn  out 
separately  in  perspective  in  Fig.  115.  The  relations  of  the  mouldings 
to  each  other,  and  the  proportions  of  the  smaller  parts  or  members  of 
the  design,  are  fully  shown  in  this  plate  and  in  Plate  VII,  Part  I.  The 
latter  plate  also  shows  the  plan  of  the  column  and  an  elevation  of  the 


3-  Id     13 -p 


\ 


«M»MiMiMiJ®wiv*(w^ 


DORIC 

BATHS- 
•OFDIO 
GETIAN- 
ROME/ 


ss 


laaji-yiimiii 


LJDU 


-^-^  -^^^-^.-yiv-^ 


|°        '«        v         I1M. 


irnTmTiml 

t        1 S  •*  &0 


Fig.  118. 

pedestal,  as  well  as  two  impost  mouldings  which  are  used  to  receive 
the  arches  resting  on  the  piers  between  the  columns,  when  employed 
after  the  Roman  fashion  shown  in  Fig.  99.. 

It  should  be  noted  that  throughout  this  Order  the  abacus  is  square 
in  plan,  and  is  ornamented  around  its  upper  edge  with  a  cyma  reversa 


313 


204 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


and  fillet.  From  the  bottom  of  the  abacus,  the  column  and  mouldings 
are  round  or  circular  in  plan  down  through  the  torus  of  the  base. 
This  torus  rests  upon  a  plinth  square  in  plan  and  rectangular  in  section. 
The  soffit  of  the  cornice,  shown  in  this  plate,  is  drawn  out  in  Fig.  116. 
In  Plate  VIII,  Part  I,  is  shown  another  Roman  Doric  Order,  after 
Palladio,  in  which  there  are  no  mutules  in  the  cornice  and  the  dentils 
are  also  omitted.  This  plate  should  be  compared  with  the  two  pre- 
ceding plates  in  order  to  understand  the  great  possible  variation  in  the 
mouldings,  sections,  etc.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  a  fault  in  the 
Order  in  Plate  IX,  Part  I,  is  the  slight  projection  of  the  triglyph,  mak- 
ing necessary  so  flat  a  treatment  of  the  half-channel  occurring  on  its 
two  edges  that  in  practice  it  would  be  barely  perceptible.  This  tri- 
glyph would  much  better  have  a  section  of  as  much  projection  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  114. 

Other  Forms  .of  Doric.  The  Doric  Order  from  the  Villa  at 
Albani  near  Rome,  is  shown  in  Fig.  117.  It  is  an  interesting  but  some- 
what peculiar  instance  of  the  use 
of  the  Doric  Order,  especially  in 
the  treatment  of  the  guttse  on  the 
mutule  soffit,  as  well  as  ^  in  the 
triglyph  and  architrave  treatment 
below.  The  Roman  Order  from 
the  Baths  of  Diocletian  at  Rome, 
shown  in  Fig.  118,  is  of  rather  a 
late  date  (about  A.  D.  290),  as  is 
further  borne  out  by  the  charac- 
ter of  the  mouldings  and  their 
over-ornamentation — all  (pi  i  t  e 
typical  of  later  Roman  archi- 
tecture. 

Neither  this  example  nor  the 
one  shown  in  Fig.  117  is  to  be 
advocated  for  exact  reproduction 
in  general  work,  although  both  of 
them  contain  many  valuable  sug- 
gestions for  the  treatment  of 
various  parts  of  the  Roman  Doric  Order. 

The  capital  from  Pompeii,  illustrated  in  Fig.  119,  is  an  interesting 


<BDRIG  CAPITAL* 
'POMPEII* 


Fig.  119. 


314 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


205 


variation  on  the  Greek  form,  that  is  typical  of  much  of  the  early  Roman 
work.  The  column  shafts  of  this  period  were  all  tall  and  slender  in 
their  proportions. 

CLASSIC  ROMAN  IONIC 
Development  and  Use  of  the  Order.     There  are  comparatively 

few  remains  of  Roman  buildings  where  the  Ionic  Order  was  originally 
used.  Among  the  Romans  this  Order  certainly  never  met  with  the 
favor  accorded  to  it  by  the  Greeks.  At  the  same  time,  the  great  num- 
ber of  antique  Ionic  capi- 
tals used  in  the  naves  of 
Roman  Basilicas  of  later 
date,  indicate  that  at  one 
time  this  Order  must  have 
been  employed  to  a  consid- 
erable extent — probably  in 
the  early  Forums  that  were 
afterwards  destroyed  to 
make  room  for  later  build- 
ings. The  Roman  columns, 
being  generally  monoliths 
of  marble  or  other  beautiful 
material,  instead  of  being 
shafts  composed  of  various 
small  sections  after  the 
Greek  fashion,  were  suffi- 
ciently valuable  to  be  saved 
and  used  again  in  the 
newer  work  that  was  to 
take  the  place  of  that  torn 
down.  The  capitals  may 
have  been  used  a  second 
time  with  the  columns  to  ^*&-  1-°- 

which  they  belonged,  or  they  may  have  been  transposed  and  used 
with  other  columns.  As  a  consequence,  in  many  Roman  churches, 
frequently  neither  the  column  shafts  nor  the  capitals  exactly  match  in 
either  color,  material,  design,  or  workmanship,  often  being  obviously 
of  different  dates  and  taken  from  different  buildings. 


SCAMOZ2I 
-CAPITAL- 


315 


206 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


In  the  Roman  colonies  and  in  Syria,  the  Ionic  Order  seems  to 
have  been  employed  longer  than  in  Rome  itself,  possibly  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  carving  the  elaborate  Corinthian  capital  which  had  later 
so  much  vogue.  Examples  of  the  Ionic  capital  carrying  the  canted 
volute  on  the  angle,  are  very  rare.  At  the  large  size  in  which  this 
Order  was  employed  by  the  Romans,  the  awkwardness  of  this  angular 
treatment  of  the  Ionic  Capital  undoubtedly  became  more  apparent,  and 
for  this  reason  they  may  have  avoided  its  use  whenever  it  was  possible. 
When,  during  the  Renaissance,  an  Ionic  capital  with  the  angular  vo- 
lute treatment  on  the  four  corners  came  into  general  use,  it  was  called 
the  "Scamozzi"  capital,  after  the  architect  who  first  most  frequently 


1ONIOC\PITAL"POMPEII 


•  Fig.  121. 

employed  it,  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  it  from  the  more  usual 
Classic  form.  The  actual  treatment  of  this  capital  as  used  by 
Scamozzi  himself  is  shown  in  Fig.  120. 

The  earlier  Roman  Ionic  Orders  were  evidently  made  by  Greek 
workmen;  and  the  capital  from  Pompeii  shown  in  Fig.  121  clearly 
evidences  this  fact.  In  this  example — that  of  an  attached  column — a 
rather  interesting  treatment  of  the  volute  on  the  angle  is  shown.  Seen 
from  the  front,  the  volute  is  canted  after  the  same  fashion  as  it  would 
be  in  order  to  make  all  four — or  in  this  case,  three — elevations  of  the 
capital  agree;  but  on  the  end  the  roll  is  still  employed,  although  treated 
in  a  somewhat  free  manner. 

The  Base.    The  base  of  the  column  shafts  of  the  Ionic  Order 


316 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


207 


offer  little  dissimilarity  in  treatment.  This  is  very  clearly  shown  in 
Fig.  122,  in  which  A  is  from  the  Theater  of  Marcellus,  and  B  from  the 
Baths  of  Diocletian,  both  Classic  examples,  while  C  and  D  are  taken 
from  the  columns  of  Palladio  and  Vignola.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  form  given  by  Vignola  is  rather  an  exceptional  one,  the  general 
type  being  more  nearly  that  shown  by  Palladio. 

The  Capital.     The  capital  of  the  Roman  Ionic  column  is  fashioned 
after  the  same  general  manner  as  that  described  in  detail  in  the  Greek 


Fig.  122. 

Ionic  Order,  but  the  mouldings  are  not  so  finely  cut.  The  shaft  was 
never  given  a  necking,  such  as  the  Greeks,  and  later,  some  of  the  Re- 
naissance architects,  occasionally  employed.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that 
the  volute  or  spiral  of  the  Roman  Order  is  much  less  refined  than  in 
the  Greek  examples.  It  contains,  moreover,  fewer  spirals  on  the  face. 
Whether  this  paucity  of  spirals  was  occasioned  by  a  lack  of  skill  in  the 
carver,  or  whether — as  in  the  case  of  the  use  of  the  spiral  in  the  Theater 
of  Marcellus,  on  the  second  story — it  was  because  these  details  were 
somewhat  removed  from  the  eye  and  therefore  this  simplification  was 
to  be  preferred  in  the  judgment  of  the  builders,  we  do  not  know. 

Fortunately  the  volute  of  the  Romans  is  much  more  easily  re- 
duced to  a  rule  than  that  of  the  Greeks.  The  Roman  volute  may  have 
been  laid  out  with  compasses,  while  the  Greek  volute  was  certainly 
laid  out  in  no  such  simple  fashion.  It  has  been  suggested  that,  in  the 
Greek  Doric  capital,  the  volute  eye  was  filled  with  a  round  wooden 
plug,  and  that  a  string  fastened  to  this  and  wound  up  around  it  would 
produce  the  concentric  circles  of  the  volute  faces. 

The  Entablature.    The  architrave  and  frieze  of  the  entablature 


317 


209 


of  the  Roman  Order  is  in  the  main  similar  to  the  Greek;  but  the  cor- 
nice, in  the  general  proportions  and  details  of  its  mouldings,  more  near- 
ly approaches  that  used  with  the  earlier  Corinthian  column  of  the 
Greeks.  The  frieze  is  often  elaborately  carved,  as  in  the  Temple  of 
Fortuna  Virilis,  Fig.  123. 

Examples.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  continual  tearing  down  of 
early  Roman  work,  to 
which  we  have  already  re- 
ferred, in  order  that  suc- 
cessive Emperors  might 
erect  buildings  in  the  loca- 
tions already  occupied  by 
the  structures  of  their  pred- 
ecessors, should  have  de- 
stroyed for  us  practically 
all  the  early  architecture  of 
the  city  of  Rome.  The  re- 
sult is,  that,  for  examples  of 
the  Ionic  Order,  we  are  re- 
stricted to  the  two  buildings 
which  have  already  fur- 
nished us  with  a  Doric  col- 
umn on  the  first  story,  and 
one  other  example — and 
that  a  very  fine  one — in  the 
Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis, 
where  fluted  shafts  are  em- 
ployed in  the  engaged  col- 
umns which  decorate  the 
walls  of  the  cella. 

Fortunately    we    are  TT     194 

able  to  indicate  the  chron- 
ological order  in  which  these  few  examples  were  erected.  The  Tem- 
ple of  Fortuna  Virilis,  possibly  of  Greek  workmanship,  dates  from 
the  early  part  of  the  first  century  B.C.,  being  probably  erected  before 
the  arcade  of  the  Tabularium.  The  Theater  of  Marcellus,  23  B.  C., 
and  the  Colosseum,  72  A.  D.,  followed.  In  one  other  Roman  build- 


TOROVNLVVIRJLLS 


319 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


IONIC -ORDER; 


•THEATRE-OP 
•MARCELLVS- 


Fig.  125. 


ing,  the  Temple  of  Saturn,  was  the 
Ionic  Order  used,  although  here  it 
is  of  a  rather  debased  type. 

The  capital  from  the  Temple  of 
Fortuna  Virilis,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
124,  sufficiently  displays  the  char- 
acter of  its  cutting  and  the  general 
"stubby"  effect  of  the  entire  cap. 
The  entablature  used  on  this  tem- 
ple is  rather  crude  in  type,  and  is 
therefore  not  illustrated.  The  Ro- 
man Ionic  cap  shown  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  same  figure,  is  a  much 
more  interesting,  if  later  and  more 
elaborate,  example,  and  its  general 
lines  are  more  worthy  of  being 
copied.  The  examples  of  the  Colos- 
seum and  the  Theater  of  Marcellus 
are  also  to  be  considered  as  special 
uses  of  superimposed  and  engaged 
Orders  on  the  second  stories  of 
these  buildings.  Of  the  two,  that 
on  the  Theater  of  Marcellus  is 
much  the  better,  as  it  has  been 
more  carefully  studied  in  proportion 
and  detail  as  well  as  in  relation  to  its 
position  and  to  the  entire  building, 
than  that  on  the  Colosseum.  This 
Order  is  shown  in  Fig.  125.  The 
Order  shown  in  Plate  LI,  on  the  left 
of  the  plate,  is  the  pilaster  used  in 
the  Baths  of  Diocletian  at  Rome, 
and  is  interesting  for  the  propor- 
tions of  its  entablature,  although 
this  entablature  is  too  fine  in  scale 
for  the  treatment  of  the  column 
itself,  where  the  coarse  fluting  and 


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heavy  cutting  of  the  cap  and  base  would  ordinarily  suggest  a  heavier 
and  much  less  finely  moulded  crowning  member.  On  this  plate,  at  the 
right,  is  also  shown  a  simple  system  of  proportioning  the  Roman  Ionic 
Order  that  should  prove  valuable  in  redrawing  or  reproducing  a  col- 
umn of  this  general  type.  The  Roman  Ionic  Order  drawn  in  Plate 
XIII,  Part  I,  shows  on  a  larger  scale  the  entablature  and  capital  ac- 
cording to  Vignola,  and  was  supposedly  adapted  by  him  from  the 
second-story  Order  of  the  Theater  of  Marcellus,  perhaps  the  most 
beautiful  example  of  antiquity.  This  plate  should  be  compared  with 
Fig.  125,  in  which  the  actual  Order  from  the  Theater  of  Marcellus  is 
shown. 

The  Roman  Ionic  Order  shown  by  Palladio  is  given  in  Plate  XIV, 
Part  I,  and  should  be  compared  with  that  given  in  Plate  XIII,  Part  I. 
Its  special  value  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  shows  a  cornice  with  modillions, 
which  in  modern  practice  it  is  frequently  desirable  to  use  with  an  Ionic 
column;  and  a  precedent  for  the  proportions  of  the  entablature  when 
used  in  this  way,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  find. 

CLASSIC  ROMAN  CORINTHIAN 

Transition  from  Greek  to  Roman  Order,  and  Difference  between 
the  Two.  A  mere  glance  at  the  architecture  of  the  Romans  shows 
that  they  depended  upon  richness  of  ornamentation  and  tremendous 
size  to  make  an  effect  upon  the  beholder.  They  found  that  the  Co- 
rinthian Order  proved  to  be  much  more  valuable  for  this  purpose  than 
the  simpler  Greek  architectural  forms;  and,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  Composite  Order,  it  was  this  style  that  the  Romans  evidently 
most  delighted  to  use. 

Existing  examples  of  the  Corinthian  Order  far  exceed  in  number 
any  of  the  remains  of  other  types;  and  it  must  be  acknowledged  that, 
taken  at  its  best,  there  are  Roman  examples  of  this  form  of  column  and 
capital  that  excel  the  earlier  Greek  experiments.  This  suggested 
comparison  must  be  qualified  by  the  further  statement,  however,  that 
there  is  no  instance  of  what  may  be  considered  an  exactly  parallel 
treatment  of  the  Corinthian  style  by  the  two  nations,  inasmuch  as  the 
Greek  examples  of  the  Tower  of  the  Winds  and  the  Monument  of 
Lysicrates  are  quite  radically  different  from  the  succeeding  Roman 
Corinthian.  It  must  also  be  said  that  there  is  no  Roman  example 
which  equals  in  delicacy,  refinement,  or  strength,  that  used  in  the 
Tholos  at  Epidauros,  a  pure  Greek  type. 


323 


212  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


As  already  intimated,  the  Corinthian  Order  may  be  considered 
as  typically  Roman  in  spirit  and  development,  in  the  same  way  that 
the  Greek  Doric  may  he  considered  typically  Greek.  The  final  devel- 
opment of  the  Roman  Corinthian  capital  differs  materially  from  the 
three  well-known  Greek  examples;  indeed,  the  only  features  they  pos- 
sess in  common  are  the  character  of  the  leaves  used  in  covering  the  bell 
outline  of  the  capital,  and  the  general  arrangement  of  the  capital  itself. 
The  foliage  varies  greatly  in  the  different  examples.  In  much  of  the 
Ptoman  work  it  is  neither  as  decorative,  as  conventional,  nor  as  refined 
as  in  Greek  examples,  and  generally  corresponds  more  nearly  with  the 
natural  forms. 

The  capital  is  the  most  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Corinthian 
( )rder,  and  it  is  always  first  considered  in  any  description  of  this  style 
of  architecture.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  Roman  Corinthian 
capital  is  based  upon  the  form  used  in  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus 
at  Athens.  (See 'Plate  LIT.) 

The  great  confusion  naturally  attending  the  erection  of  buildings 
by  the  Roman  Emperors,  though  executed  wholly  by  Greek  artists, 
architects,  and  workmen,  makes  it  somewhat  difficult  to  establish  a 
dividing  line  between  Greek  and  Roman  work  in  certain  well-known 
architectural  monuments.  The  capital  from  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 
Olympus  is  an  instance  in  evidence.  This  building  is  variously  termed 
Greek  or  Roman  by  different  authorities,  according  to  their  own  per- 
sonal leanings.  It  has  finally  seemed  best  to  include  the  Corinthian 
Order  from  this  temple  (sometimes  called  the  Temple  or  Aqueduct 
of  Hadrian)  as  Roman  work,  although  it  was  undoubtedly  carried  out 
and  executed  by  Greeks,  and  that,  too,  at  a  period  when  their  native 
taste  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  been  much  affected  by  Roman  in- 
fluence. Nevertheless,  this  individual  example  is  so  nearly  allied  to 
the  later  Roman  treatment  that  it  may  be  considered  along  with  their 
form  of  the  Corinthian  capital  rather  than  with  the  other — and  very 
different — examples  which  we  have  already  found  in  Greece  itself. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  this  Order  is  of  Greek 
workmanship;  and  so,  historically,  it  occupies  a  position  midway  be- 
tween the  earlier  Greek  experiments  and  the  Order  that  the  Romans 
later  carried  to  so  great  a  degree  of  perfection.  Not  only  does  this 
apply  to  the  capital — in  which  the  awkward  carrying  out  of  the  upper 
plinth  or  abacus  to  a  sharp  point  on  the  corner  should  be  noted — but 


324 


'ROMAN^CDRIN'  FilANh  ORDERS 


JUPITEI^OUflVPUS 

• ATHENS- 


PLATE  L1I. 

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213 


also  to  the  entablature  itself,  which  later  it  may  be  interesting  to  com- 
pare with  that  used  on  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  along  with  some 
of  the  later  Roman  entablatures. 

There  are  only  two  types  of  bases  used  with  the  Corinthian  col- 
umn by  the  Romans.  Both  of  these  types  are  shown  in  Fig.  126.  At 
A  is  shown  the  base  moulding  from  the  Temple  of  Hadrian  at  Athens; 
and  at  C,  the  form  given  by  Palladio.  This  latter  example  may  be 
taken  as  the  most  nearly  typical  form  of  Corinthian  usage ;  those  on  the 
Basilica  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina  and  the  Arch  of  Constantine,  for 
example,  are  even  simpler,  being  the  same  as  the  Palladian  Ionic  bases 
shown  at  C  in  Fig.  122.  More  elaborate  forms,  but  forms  that  are 
rarely  used  to-day,  probably  because  the  modern  Corinthian  Order 


Fig.  126. 

seldom  equals  in  size  the  Roman  type  to  which  the  many  members  of 
these  bases  are  especially  suited,  are  shown  at  B  and  D  in  Fig.  126,  the 
first  being  from  the  Temple  of  Saturn,  and  the  second  from  the  Order 
of  Vignola. 

While  it  has  already  been  said  that  the  chronological  sequence  of 
Roman  architecture  is  not  materially  important  in  following  its  process 
of  development,  still  it  is  instructive  to  trace  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
date-relation  of  the  different  examples,  as  this  will  help  more  or  less  to 
show  the  development  and  decline  of  the  style  in  the  different  Roman 
periods.  Some  of  the  later  Roman  architecture  is  as  pure  as  the 
earlier  work;  and  some  of  the  earlier  work  is  as  debased  as  most  of  that 
done  during  the  third  century.  As  a  rule  the  Roman  architecture  of 


327 


214 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


about  the  period  of  Augustuses  the  most  refined,  but  during  the  reigns 
of  both  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  there  was  evidenced  a  Renaissance  or 
tendency  to  return  to  the  beauty  and  purity  of  the  earlier  period. 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  Athens.  It  is  well,  then,  to  remember 
that  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus  at  Athens,  begun  about  170  B.  C., 
the  Order  from  which  is  shown  in  Plate  LII,  was  finished  about  117 
A.  D.,  by  Hadrian.  The  design  of  the  capital  was  probably  deter- 
mined at  a  date  near  the  beginning  of  the  work,  possibly  by  Cos- 


Fig.  127.    Early  Corinthian  Capital. 

sutius,  although  it  is  likely  that  the  workmanship  of  many  of  these 
capitals  belongs  to  a  much  later  date.  The  columns  of  this  temple 
were  58  feet  in  height. 

An  early  Corinthian  capital  (Fig.  127),  taken  from  the  church 
of  S.  Niccolo  in  Carcere,  shows  a  capital,  evidently  of  Greek  work- 
manship, which  bears  a  close  relation  to  those  employed  in  the  Temple 
of  Jupiter  Olympus  at  Athens. 

Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  Cora.  The  capital  from  the  Temple 
of  Castor  and  Pollux  (Fig.  128)  is  one  of  the  remains  found  at  Cora, 
and  is  as  undoubtedy  of  Greek  workmanship  as  it  is  an  early  Roman 
example  of  the  Order.  This  is  another  of  the  drawings  by  Emanuel 


Fig.  138.    Roman  Corinthian  Capital  and  Base.     (Restoration.) 
From  drawing  by  Emauuel  Brune. 


216  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

Brune.  The  base  is  an  interesting  example  of  an  early  Roman  Co- 
rinthian outline ;  and  the  capital  is  somewhat  shorter  in  proportion  than 
the  later  Roman  type.  The  leafage  and  ornamentation  are  very  near 
the  Greek  in  feeling,  and  it  should  be  noted  how  closely  the  leaves  in 
their  profile  follow  the  growth  and  emphasize  the  outlines  of  the  col- 
umn itself.  The  capital  already  referred  to  and  shown  in  Fig.  109  is 
probably  of  about  the  same  date ;  and  both  these  examples,  along  with 
the  two  or  three  other  earliest  Roman  uses  of  the  Order,  show  a  method 
of  treatment  and  a  strength  of  outline  that  is  too  often  lacking  in  other 
Roman  work. 

Temple  of  Mars  Ultor,  Rome.  Among  the  earliest  Roman  build- 
ings upon  which  this  Order  was  employed,  is  the  Temple  of  Mars 
Ultor  or  Mars  Vengeur,  dating  from  about  42  B.  C.,  of  which  three 
columns  remain  standing  in  the  Forum.  This  building,  backing  up 
against  the  Quirinal  Hill,  formed  a  part  of  the  Forum  of  Augustus, 
and  already  displays  a  beautifully  developed  Roman  type  (Fig.  129). 
This  Order  is  shown  in  an  engraving  from .  another  of  the  famous 
Brune  drawings,  the  original  being  the  property  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology.  The  original  was  drawn  at  a  scale  of  two 
centimeters  per  meter — about  equivalent  to  the  one-quarter  inch 
scale  of  our  system  of  figuring.  The  tremendous  size  of  the  building, 
and  the  scale  of  the  different  parts,  may  be  estimated  from  the  steps 
and  the  height  of  the  figures  shown  in  the  lower  portion  of  the 
drawing.  Aside  from  the  beauty  of  the  rendering,  the  student  should 
notice  particularly  that  the  columns  are  all  rendered  very  lightly, 
the  general  effect  being  almost  white  in  front  of  the  background, 
which,  although  not  entirely  in  shadow,  is  rendered  darker  to  show 
that  it  is  on  a  plane  farther  back  than  the  columns.  This  drawing 
displays  with  unusual  beauty  of  rendering  the  shafts  and  full  pro- 
portions of  the  Roman  Corinthian  Order,  and,  incidentally,  a  very 
restrained  example  of  a  Roman  doorway  appropriate  for  use  with 
the  Corinthian  column. 

The  Temple  of  Concord,  rebuilt  by  Augustus  approximately  7 
B.  C.,  has  an  extremely  beautiful  capital  and  entablature.  The  capi- 
tal contains  two  ram's  heads  used  in  the  place  of  the  more  conventional 
corner  volutes;  but  this  eccentricity,  with  the  consequent  loss  of  sharp- 
ness of  outline  of  the  capital  itself,  is  not  sufficient  to  spoil  the  effect  of 
the  Order  as  a  whole. 


380 


FORVM 
DAVCVSTE 


ROME 


ECHELLE 
DE  O.O2  PM 


i  fin  i  mill  MI 


ifr 


Fig.  189.    Detail  from  Temple  of  Mars  Vengeur,  Rome.    (Restoration.) 
From  drawing  by  Emanuel  JJruue. 


218  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


Pantheon,  Rome.  The  portico  of  the  Pantheon  is  of  earlier  date 
than  the  remainder  of  the  building.  This  building  was  erected — on 
the  site  of  an  earlier  temple  built  by  Agrippa — some  time  during  the 
reign  of  Augustus  (B.  C.  27 — A.  D.  14);  and  the  present  entrance  por- 
tico contains  eight  columns  of  the  original  ten-eolumn  pedimented 
end  of  the  older  building.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  sides  of 
the  brackets,  or  modillions,  in  the  cornice  of  the  pediment  are  not  ex- 
actly perpendicular,  but  slightly  inclined.  This  difference  would 
naturally  occur  in  adapting  the  two  inclined  cornices  of  the  earlier 
pediment  to  the  different  slope  required  by  the  narrower  base  of  the 
new  pediment  face.  The  dentil  course  in  the  cornice  has  never  been 
carved  (see  Plate  LIII).  The  columns  from  both  the  interior  and 
the  exterior  of  the  Pantheon  are  superb  forms  of  the  best  type  of  Ro- 
man Corinthian.  The  round  part  of  the  building  dates  from  about 
120  A.  D.  The  Orders  used  on  the  Pantheon  are  of  a  special  interest 
from  the  fact  that  this  building  shows  side  by  side  the  different  work- 
ings out  of  the  same  Order  when  used  on  the  exterior  and  interior  of  a 
monumental  building.  Therefore  the  differences  displayed  in  the 
various  proportions  and  relations  of  the  mouldings  and  the  placing  of 
the  ornament  in  these  two  Orders,  are  most  suggestive,  and,  until  the 
reasons  covering  their  arrangement  are  apprehended,  will  deserve 
careful  study. 

Temples  of  Vesta.  There  are  two  Temples  of  Vesta,  probably 
both  erected  during  the  reign  of  Augustus.  The  one  in  Rome,  of 
which  three  slender  columns  are  still  standing  in  the  Forum,  was  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  examples  of  Roman  architecture,  and  was  prob- 
ably of  Greek  workmanship.  The  other,  a  circular  temple  over- 
hanging the  gorge  of  the  river  at  Tivoli,  has  a  capital  very  similar  in 
general  character  and  outline  to  the  two  examples  illustrated  from 
Cora.  The  temple  itself  has  a  cella,  which  yet  retains  one  of  its  two 
windows  and  a  doorway,  the  latter  illustrated  separately  on  a  plate 
that  is  referred  to  later.  This  cella  is  21  feet  in  diameter,  possibly 
of  an  earlier  date  than  the  18  columns  of  the  peristyle  which  surround 
it.  These  columns  are  18  feet  5  inches  high,  and  are  placed  on  a 
podium  (i  feet  high.  The  columns,  it  will  be  seen,  are  rather  stumpy 
in  effect,  being  only  about  9|  diameters  high,  with  the  capital  1  diame- 
ter— proportions  of  unusual  strength,  and  evidently  in  part  adapted 
to  the  location  of  the  temple  on  the  top  of  a  cliff  overhanging  the  river 


332 


ROMAN^OORNTHlAN-ORDExR.S 


PANTHEON 


INTERIOR 


PLATE  LIII. 

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219 


below.  The  carving  of  these 
capitals  is  especially  vigorous  and 
most  effectively  suited  to  the  pro- 
portions of  the  column  shaft. 
(See  Fig.  130). 

There  is  much  knowledge  of 
Greek  precedent  displayed  in  this 
remarkable  example;  but  the 
treatment  is  yet  novel,  original, 
and,  all  in  all,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  capitals  of  the  Roman 
Corinthian  form.  There  is  a 
vigor  in  the  placing,  cutting,  and 
distribution  of  the  members  that 
displays  great  strength,  virility, 
and  feeling  on  the  part  of  its 
designer. 

Comparison  of  Three  Exam= 
pies.  The  height  and  proportions 
of  the  columns  of  three  of  the 
best-known  examples  of  the  Co- 
rinthian Order  may  be  interest- 
ingly compared.  The  column 
used  in  the  Portico  of  the  Pan- 
theon is  45  feet  3  inches  high ;  in 
the  Temple  of  Castor,  48  feet  3 
inches;  and  in  the  Temple  of 
Mars  Ultor,  57  feet  9  inches. 
The  proportions  of  their  diame- 
ters to  their  heights  are  respect- 
ively 1  to  9^,  1  to  1(H,  and  1  to 
10,  including  the  square  plinth; 
the  inter-columniations  are  2|, 
H,  1£,  respectively.  The  stur- 
dier or  heavier  the  column,  the 
greater  the  intercolumniation. 

Temple  of  Minerva,  Assisi. 
There  is  an  example  of  the  Augus- 


•ROMAN* 
'CORINTHIAN- 


TLVOLJ' 


Fig.  130. 


335 


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STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  221 

tan  era  that  is  comparatively  little  known — that  of  the  Temple  of 
Minerva  at  Assisi.  The  capitals  resemble  those  of  the  Temple  of 
Castor  and  Pollux  at  Cora.  The  steps  of  this  example  are  carried 
back  between  the  columns,  which  therefore  have  the  appearance  of 
being  placed  on  pedestals.  This  is  the  only  Italian  example  of  this 
custom,  although  it  is  occasionally  found  used  in  Syrian  buildings, 
where  pedestals  are  frequently  used  with  the  Corinthian  as  well  as 
with  the  other  Roman  Orders. 

Temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  Rome.  The  Temple  of 
Antoninus  and  Faustina  is  an  exceptionally  pure  example,  although 
of  late  date.  Possibly  a  Greek  artist  may  have  been  employed  on  this 
work,  in  which  case  its  beauty  and  refinement  may  be  explained  by 
that  fact.  This  temple  is  shown  in  Plate  LIV,  and  is  of  special  interest 
owing  to  the  unusual  judgment  displayed  in  the  ornamentation  of  the 
entablature.  The  carved  members  are  here  alternated  and  con- 
trasted with  the  plain  mouldings,  with  a  reserve  and  discretion  that  is 
seldom  attained  in  Roman  workmanship.  The  capital  suggests  a 
study  of  the  better  and  earlier  Greek  and  Roman  forms. 

Temple  of  Nimes,  France.  The  Maison  Carree  or  Temple  of 
Nimes  in  France  (Fig.  131),  to  which  the  approximate  date  of  122 
A.  D.  has  been  given,  may  certainly  be  included  within  the  dates  mark- 
ing the  beginning  and  the  end  of  Hadrian's  reign  (117-138  A.  D.). 
This  temple  is  rectangular  in  shape,  and  is  raised  on  a  podium  and 
approached  by  a  flight  of  steps.  The  columns  of  this  temple  are  30 
feet  high,  with  a  diameter  of  6  feet  9  inches,  and  the  intercolumniation 
is  two  diameters.  This  building  is  to-day  in  an  exceptionally  good 
state  of  preservation. 

Temple  of  the  Sun,  Rome.  On  the  same  plate  with  the  Order 
from  the  Temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina  (Plate  LIV),  is  shown  the 
Order  from  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  on  the  Quirinal  Hill.  This  build- 
ing, otherwise  called  the  Frontispiece  or  Portico  of  Nero,  was  built  by 
Aurelian  on  his  return  from  Palmyra  in  273  A.  D.,  and  the  work  is 
exceptionally  refined  in  character  for  so  late  a  date.  The  carving  and 
ornamentation  are  here  arranged  with  a  discretion  worthy  of  work  of 
a  better  period.  The  form  of  the  entablature  itself  is  unusual,  with 
the  brackets  that  were  afterwards  relegated  to  be  used  with  the  Com- 
posite Order;  and  the  modillion  course  forms  the  principal  member  of 
the  bed-mould;  but  the  proportions  to  one  another  of  the  separate 


339 


222  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

parts  of  this  cornice  are  remarkably  succe^ful,  and  the  foliated  scroll 
carving  of  the  frieze  is  done  with  such  strength  and  vigor  of  compo- 
sition that  its  use  is  here  amply  justified.  A  fault  which  is  more  ap- 
parent in  the  plate  than  in  the  actual  building,  is  that  the  entire  entab- 
lature is  somewhat  heavy  and  over-large  in  scale  for  the  diameter  and 
thickness  of  the  column  and  capital  which  support  it.  The  column 
is  58  feet  high,  and  the  entablature  is  nearly  16  feet  high. 

Comparison  of  Early  and  Late  Examples.  It  should  be  noticed 
that  each  of  these  Orders  increases  in  elaborateness  of  carving  and  of 
design  over  its  predecessors.  In  certain  of  them,  this  has  resulted  in  a 
mere  complexity  of  moulding  and  carved  detail,  often  without  suffi- 
cient meaning  or  apparent  reason,  and  without  due  relation  to  its  place 
or  to  the  moulding  which  it  is  intended  to  ornament.  The  capitals 
themselves  display  this  same  retrogression;  and  in  place  of  the  crisp 
leafage  and  cutting,  the  firm  upright  lines,  the  decision  of  composition, 
and  the  boldness  of  massing  of  the  Greek  and  early  Roman  examples, 
they  run  to  mere  profusion  of  ornament.  The  outline  appears  flabby, 
and  the  capital  of  insufficient  strength  to  resist  the  superimposed 
weight.  The  bell  of  the  capital  is  so  entirely  covered  with  foliage  that 
it  is  merely  restless  and  monotonously  uninteresting  in  mass. 

This  difference  is  well  contrasted  in  Plate  LIT,  where  an  early 
example  (the  one  used  on  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus  at  Athens) 
and  one  of  the  late  Orders  (that  of  the  Temple  of  Saturn  at  Rome) 
are  both  shown  together.  The  first  is  partly  Greek,  and  therefore 
restrained  in  its  design;  the  last,  wholly  Roman  and  therefore  over- 
florid  in  its  ornamentation. 

Vignola's  Corinthian  Order.  The  Order  shown  in  Fig.  132  is  the 
version  of  Roman  Corinthian  given  by  Vignola,  and,  while  founded  on 
old  examples,  it  actually  dates  from  the  period  of  the  Renaissance. 
To  this  same  time  also  belongs  the  example  shown  in  Plate  LV,  dis- 
playing the  method  of  construction. 

Vignola's  example  of  the  Corinthian  Order  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  the  various  monuments  in  Rome,  and  particularly  from 
the  circular  Temple  of  the  Pantheon,  and  from  three  columns  which 
are  still  standing  to-day  in  the  Roman  Forum.  After  having  compared 
all  their  details  and  proportions,  he  established  a  rule  which,  without 
materially  differing  from  the  ancient  forms,  gives  such  a  relation  that 
a  modillion  always  occurs  on  the  axis  of  the  column;  and  the  eggs-and- 


340 


Roman  Corinthian  Columns  from  Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 
In  the  Forum,  Rome. 


Fig.  132. 


341 


224  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

darts,  dentils,  and  other  moulding  ornamentations  also  correspond  in 
axis  with  the  columns,  as  may  be  found  by  drawing  out  this  Order 
with  the  measurements  given.  The  base  of  this  column  is  similar  to 
that  already  shown  in  the  Ionic  example,  Plate  XIII,  Part  I;  both  be- 
ing derived  from  the  Greek  Attic  base,  but  the  Corinthian  base  is  more 
subtly  moulded  and  generally  includes  one  or  two  members  more  than 
the  Ionic.  In  both  these  bases  the  members  are  round  in  plan,  and 
end  in  a  torus  resting  upon  a  plain  plinth,  square  in  plan  and  rectan- 
gular in  elevation. 

The  pedestal  of  this  Order  is  sufficiently  well  explained  in  the 
plate  itself,  but  it  may  again  t>e  repeated  that  the  pedestal  is  not  so 
much  an  authentic  part  of  the  Roman  Order  as  it  is  a  creation  of  the 
Renaissance.  On  this  plate  the  pedestal  is  shown  with  a  necking 
which  cannot  be  considered  as  an  invariable  adjunct  to  its  use  with 
the  Roman  Order.  The  capital  itself,  in  this  example,  may  be  criti- 
cised not  only  for  lack  of  refinement  in  the  treatment  of  the  foliage, 
and  over-luxuriance  in  the  method  of  its  application,  but  also  for  a 
certain  clumsiness  directly  attributed  to  the  thickness  through  the 
capital  being  greater  than  the  diameter  at  the  neck  of  the  column,  and 
to  the  fact  that  the  foliage  has  a  tendency  to  swell  out  too  rapidly, 
making  too  great  a  contrast  with  the  slender  outline  dimensions  of  the 
shaft  below.  This  tendency  has  been  corrected  in  later  work,  al- 
though indeed  it  does  not  show  at  all  in  the  Greek  capitals ;  and  to-day 
one  of  the  surest  characteristics  of  the  best  Colonial  work  is  that  this 
Corinthian  capital  is  carried  up.  with  the  leaves  held  back  and  re- 
strained to  follow  the  plane  of  the  column  below  for  some  distance, 
curving  out  only  at  the  top,  below  the  volute  and  smaller  cauliculi. 
The  abacus  of  the  Order  is  hollowed  out  on  the  four  sides  and  moulded 
as  in  the  Greek  form. 

The  entablature  of  this  Order  is  essentially  different  from  that 
of  any  that  we  have  heretofore  seen,  and  may  be  considered  as  being 
more  distinctly  Roman  than  any  other  detail  of  the  Corinthian  Order. 
The  architrave  is  divided  into  three  fascias  or  bands,  separated  by  a 
small  moulding,  generally  ornamented.  Indeed ,  even  the  plane 
faces  of  the  bands  themselves  are  sometimes  elaborately  carved.  The 
frieze  is  often  carved  profusely  in  high  relief.  The  cornice  includes 
the  mouldings  of  the  Ionic  dentiled  bed-mould,  with  the  addition  of  a 
series  of  brackets  or  modillions  (Fig.  133)  quite  different  from  the 


•AMETHOD*  OFCDNSTRVCT1NG' 


ORDERS 


*)        •MODULES-iS'-PAErS 


9  i  a 

1    »  6  9  n  i?  |ia  | 

IT  i  I  i  i  I  I 


CDMPO.SITE; 


PLATE  LV: 

(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  LA7.) 


343 


Corinthian  Columns. 
From  the  Temple  of  Jupiter,  Baalbec,  Syria. 


STl'DV  <U   TIIK  OHDKI5S 


228 


<DfclNTHlAN- 


mutules  of  the  (i  reeks,  hut  evidently  sugge^ed  hy  them,  although  they 
incorporate,  in  part,  the  leaf  and  volute  treatment  of  the  Corinthian 
capital.  The  space  between  these  modillions  was  filled  l»y  elaln>rately 
carved  panels,  and  the  whole 
crowned  by  the  usual  crowning 
meml)ers  of  the  cornice,  a^ain 
ornamented  on  every  possible 
surface.  The  round  mouldings 
of  the  base  of  the  column  :«nd 
the  mouldings  of  the  base  and 
cap  of  the  pedestal  in  the  Corin- 
thian and  Composite  Roman 
Orders,  are  also  often  heavily 
enriched  by  oarving. 

The  subdivisions  and  pro- 
portions of  members  composing  this  entablature  and  its  architrave, 
frieze,  and  cornice,  are  shown  in  particular  in  Fig.  132.  The  lion's 
head  carved  on  the  upper  member  and  coming  over  the  modillion, 
is  sometimes  an  object  of  decoration  merely,  but  often  serves  as  a 
spout  for  the  discharge  of  rain-water  gathered  on  the  roof,  and  was 
evidently  adapted  from  a  similar  ornament  employed  by  the  Greeks. 
These  spouts  are  united  by  a  gutter  cut  in  the  upper  member  of  the 
cornice  at  the  back  of  its  face,  in  which  case  the  open  mouths  in  the 
heads  are  furnished  with  a  piece  of  tile  through  which  the  water  from 
the  roof  escapes. 

THE  COMPOSITE  ORDER 

The  Arch  of  Titus  (Fig.  134)  contains  the  earliest  known  example 
in  Rome  of  the  use  of  the  Composite  Order.  However,  while  the  first 
example  in  Rome,  there  are  still  earlier  ones  existing  in  cities  of 
Asia  Minor.  Perhaps  the  earliest  instance  of  the  use  of  this  Order  is 
found  in  the  Pronaos  in  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  at  Aizani,  where  a 
capital  (Fig  135)  with  a  single  row  of  acanthus  leaves  is  used  with  a 
volute.  This  dates  from  the  first  century  B.  C.  This  capital  sug- 
gests the  possible  connection  between  the  ornamented  Ionic  capital, 
such  as  used  in  the  Erechtheum,  and  the  later  Roman  Corinthian  and 
Composite  capitals;  showing,  as  it  does,  a  possible  evolution  of  the 
leaf  treatment  of  the  frieze  from  these  first  examples  to  the  more  elabo- 


345 


Fig.  134.    Areh  of  Titua. 


Arch  of  Titus,  Showing  View  of  Colosseum. 


228 


CAPITAL^ 


rate  leaf  treatment  on  the  face  of  the  bell  of  the  later  capital — just  such 
a  transition  as  is  shown  in  this  Greek  capital  from  Aizani.  So  it  is 
possible  that  the  Composite  capital  is  more  properly  an  outgrowth  of 

the  richer  forms  of  the 
Ionic  Order,  which  may 
have  first  suggested  the  use 
of  leafage  below  the  Ionic 
volutes. 

But  the  full  develop- 
ment of  the  Composite 
form,  combining  all  the 
richest  and  most  elaborate 
parts  of  the  former  Orders, 
is  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
Romans.  Aside  from  the 
fact  that  all  the  mouldings 
of  this  Order  are  more 
elaborately  carved  even 
than  in  the  Corinthian 
buildings,  its  distinguishing 
characteristic  is  again  found 
in  the  capital,  which  was  an 
apparent  combination  of  the 
Corinthian  vase-shaped  bell 
along  with  its  ornamental 
foliage,  placed  beneath  the  volute  and  capital  of  the  Ionic  Order. 
This  capital  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  a  good  instance  of  that 
over-elaboration  of  the  Romans  which  is  not  consistent  with  the  taste 
of  to-day.  This  fact  makes  the  Composite  Order  of  little  present 
advantage;  and  it  is  necessary  to  take  up  and  illustrate  only  a  few 
examples,  in  order  to  complete  and  round  out  the  progress  of  Roman 
architecture. 

It  is  in  the  Forum  of  Nerva  that  the  first  beginnings  of  the  archi- 
tectural decadence  of  Rome  may  be  noted.  It  is  here  evident 
that  inferior  artists  are  being  employed;  and  the  continuous  progress 
of  this  decline  may  be  noticed  in  the  Composite  Order  and  cornice 
of  the  Arch  of  Septimus  Severus,  in  the  Baths  of  Diocletian,  and  even 
in  the  Corinthian  Order  employed  on  the  Arch  of  Constantine. 


'AIZANI 


Fig.  135. 


348 


ORDERS 


PLATE  LVI. 
(\  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  LVI.) 


349 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  229 

The  Composite  Order  shown  in  the  example  from  the  large  hall 
of  the  Baths  of  Diocletian  at  Rome,  indicates  what  may  be  con- 
sidered the  ultimate  phase  of  the  development  of  Roman  architecture. 
This  Order  dates  from  about  290  A.  D.;  and,  especially  in  the  leaf 
treatment,  the  decadence  which  has  overtaken  this,  along  with  the 
other  arts,  is  plainly  evidenced. 

This  Order  is  shown  on  the  same  plate  with  the  Renaissance  ver- 
sion of  Palladio  (Plate  LVI),  the  latter  dating  between  1518  and  1580 
A.  D. ;  while  another  example  very  similar  to  Palladio 's  form  is  shown 
in  Plate  LV  along  with  a  method  of  construction  much  the  same  as 
that  employed  with  the  Corinthian  Order  drawn  out  beside  it.  The 
simple  methods  of  proportioning  the  Orders  shown  in  these  two  ex- 
amples may  be  considered  sufficiently  exact  to  be  used  customarily 
in  roughing  out  the  proportions  and  outlines  of  these  two  type  forms. 

ROMAN  GATEWAYS  AND  TRIUMPHAL  ARCHES 

Of  the  famous  triumphal  arches  left  by  Roman  builders,  the 
majority  employed  the  use  of  the  Order  in  either  the  Corinthian  or 
Composite  forms.  These  arches  were  generally  of  two  types.  In 
one — the  grander  and  the  more  imposing — there  was  one  large  central 
arch  for  the  passage  of  horses  and  chariots,  with  two  small  arches 
for  foot  passengers,  one  on  either  side.  Of  this  type,  the  Arch 
of  Constantine,.  built  312  A.  D.  (Fig.  136),  is  perhaps  the  best  ex- 
ample. It  is  decorated  with  separated  or  detached  columns  of 
the  Corinthian  Order,  and  is  crowned,  as  was  usual  -in  this  form  of 
monument,  with  a  heavy  Attic  story.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
these  structures  customarily  carried  an  elaborate  sculptured  quadriga 
of  horses  and  statues,  which  would  do  much  to  break  the  sky-line  and 
add  to  the  festal  effect  of  the  composition. 

The  other  type  was  of  a  single  arch  supported  by  rather  heavy 
piers,  either  plain  or  ornamented.  Of  this  type,  perhaps  the  best  ex- 
ample is  the  Arch  of  Ancona,  dating  from  about  112  A.  D.  (Fig.  137), 
which,  being  placed  at  the  head  of  a  flight  of  steps  whereby  alone  it  can 
be  approached,  is  somewhat  unique. 

Other  Roman  arches  were  built  in  various  colonies  of  the  Empire. 
In  many  cases  they  formed  the  entrance  gates  to  a  town  or  a  fortified 
camp,  though  frequently  they  were  placed  at  the  intersection  of  two 


351 


Fig.  137.    Arch  of  Trajaii.  Auuoua. 


232  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

principal  streets,  which  were  probably  colonnaded  along  some  part  of 
their  length. 

Of  these  long  colonnaded  streets  there  are  many  remains.  Prob- 
ably the  most  imposing  are  those  at  Palmyra,  where  the  enormous 
size  of  the  columns  and  the  remaining  evidences  of  the  great  length 
of  these  streets  make  the  ruins,  even  to-day,  tremendously  impressive. 

The  great  simplicity  and  good  proportions  of  the  Arch  of  Titus 
make  it  the  most  successful  of  any  of  these  structures.  The  columns 
are  attached  (those  on  the  Arch  of  Constantine  being  separated);  and 
the  simplicity  of  the  whole  design,  with  the  concentration  of  interest 
at  the  same  time  upon  the  carved  panels  that  contrast  with  the  other- 
wise plain  surface  of  the  stone,  makes  it  especially  commendable  from 
a  modern  point  of  view. 

There  are  two  other  Roman  arches  employing  the  use  of  this 
Order  that  may  be  specially  mentioned — one  of  the  single-arch  and 
one  of  the  triple-arch  type.  The  first  of  these  in  point  of  date  is  the 
Arch  of  Beneventum,  114  A.  D.,  erected  in  honor  of  Trajan,  which  is  a 
most  elaborately  carved  and  ornamented  example  of  the  single  arch, 
entirely  lacking  the  good  proportions  of  the  Arch  of  Titus. 

The  Arch  of  Septimus  Severus,  203  A.  D.,  is  an  example  of  the 
triple  gateway  with  detached  Composite  columns,  carrying  less  archi- 
tectural carving  than  the  one  already  mentioned. 

ROMAN  DOORWAYS 

The  doorway  shown  in  Fig.  138  was  drawn  and  rendered  by 
Emanuel  Brune,  at  just  one-tenth  of  its  original  size,  from  the  remains 
of  a  doorway  in  the  Doric  Temple  of  Hercules  at  Cora.  The  scale 
in  the  center  of  the  drawing  at  the  bottom  indicates  the  length  of  one 
meter,  or  approximately  40  inches  in  our  customary  method  of  figuring 
(39.37  inches,  to  be  exact).  The  details  of  a  side  elevation  of  the 
bracket  or  consol  supporting  the  door-cap,  along  with  a  section  through 
this  consol  and  the  architrave  surrounding  the  door,  are  drawn  out  in 
Fig.  139.  This  design  shows  strongly  the  influence  of  Greek  precedent 
which  we  have  already  found  so  much  in  evidence  in  all  the  architec- 
ture of  Cora  and  its  vicinity,  and  therefore  it  may  not  be  considered 
as  so  distinctively  Roman  as  the  more  imposing  doorway  of  the  Pan- 
theon, shown  in  Plate  LVIII. 

The  doorway  of  the  Pantheon  is  truly  Roman  in  its  proportions 


354 


Fig.  138.    Dorio  Doorway  from  Roman  Temple  at  Cori,  Italy. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


'DETAILS 


and  treatment,  and  its  richness  of  ornament.  In  place  of  the  sloping 
opening  and  architrave,  narrower  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom  and 

rarely  ornamented  with 
carving,  we  find  a  large, 
rectangular  opening  with 
perpendicular  jambs  orna- 
mented on  their  face  by  a 
Classic  archivolt  with  elab- 
orately carved  mouldings, 
and  surmounted  w  i  t  h  a 
frieze  having  a  plain,  curved 
surface  and  a  cornice  of 
considerable  proje  c  t  i  o  n  . 
The  mouldings  are  of  a 
good  type  of  Roman  sec- 
tion, and  the  carving  is  un- 
usually appropriate  in  char- 
acter to  their  outlines.  The 
opening  is  filled  with  an 
elaborate  screen  of  Classic 
pilasters,  grilles,  and  doors, 
all  of  bronze.  This  metal 
work  probably  was  origin- 
ally plated  in  gold,  and  is 
one  of  the  best-preserved 
specimens  of  Ronlan  detail 
that  has  come  down  to  us. 
Fig.  139.  This  elaborate  doorway  lies 

at  the  rear  of  the  deep  Corinthian  portico  on  the  front  of  the  build- 
ing, and  forms  the  main  entrance  to  the  circular  rotunda  of  the 
interior.  See  Plate  LVIII  (Page  367) . 

ROMAN  WINDOWS 


AT  CORA 

CONSOLE 


Roman  window  openings  are,  in  earlier  buildings,  quite  closely 
copied  from  Greek  models,  although  in  work  of  the  true  Roman  period, 
such  as  the  Temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli,  the  mouldings  themselves  are 
Roman  in  their  section  outline.  The  best  Classic  windows,  however, 
are  those  designed  during  the  later  Renaissance  period;  and  it  is  better 


356 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  235 


to  revert  to  some  one  of  these  types  as  a  precedent  for  use  on  any  mod- 
ern Classic  structure. 

ROMAN  MOULDINGS 

The  mouldings  employed  by  the  Romans  are  generally  fol- 
lowed, through  the  medium  of  the  Renaissance  work  of  Italy  and  Eng- 
land, in  most  of  the  work  executed  to-day;  and  these  sections  are  there- 
fore evidently  even  more  important  to  the  student  than  the  Greek 
mouldings  which  he  has  already  studied.  The  architects  of  the  Italian 
Renaissance  selected  with  almost  invariable  good  taste  the  best  mould- 
ing sections  employed  by  the  Romans  in  the  Classic  examples  with 
which  they  were  familiar;  and  these  same  sections  were  later  copied  by 
the  architects  of  England  and  other  countries,  until  our  modern  mould- 
ing vocabulary  is  substantially  confined  for  precedents  to  these  profiles. 

The  various  moulding  sections  may  be  studied  in  Fig.  140,  as  well 
as  in  all  the  other  plates,  which  are  carefully  detailed  for  this  purpose  in 
order  to  show  the  general  purpose  and  use  of  all  the  Roman  mouldings 
in  common  use,  so  that  the  variations  and  refinements  in  their  outlines 
can  be  easily  apprehended  and  understood.  In  studying  these  draw- 
ings, especially  those  of  the  Roman  Order  Plates,  it  must  be  remember- 
ed that  they  are  intended  merely  as  a  type  or  general  form  of  the  many 
varieties  devised  by  the  ancients.  The  various  outlines  should  be 
studied  in  the  plates  redrawn  from  original  work  and  in  the  various 
works  given  in  the  bibliography  elsewhere  annexed. 

In  many  of  the  Plates  here  reproduced,  the  moulding  ornament  in 
the  original  examples  has  been  omitted  in  order  to  show  more  clearly 
the  moulding  outline  and  section  and  to  convey  at  the  same  time  the 
fact  that  the  Order  alone  may  be  employed  with  the  minimum  amount 
of  ornamentation  and  yet  obtain  a  very  satisfactory  result.  In  other 
cases,  the  moulding  ornament  has  been  suggested  over  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  drawing,  for  the  same  purpose  of  simplifying  the  archi- 
tectural effect  as  an  aid  to  its  readier  comprehension.  The  use  of 
ornamentation,  to  the  extreme  degree  manifested  by  the  Romans,  is 
evidence  of  a  luxuriance  and  a  lack  of  refinement  on  the  part  of  the 
builders  and  the  nation  at  large.  Useless  ornament  in  any  event  is 
employed  only  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  upon  the  beholder  an 
effect  of  greater  costliness ;  and  it  is  a  mooted  point  whether  ornament, 
as  applied  by  the  Romans  in  elaborate  carving  on  plain  surfaces  as  well 
as  on  mouldings,  obtains  an  effect  commensurate  with  its  cost. 


357 


ROME 


LU 

g 

5=! 

en 
< 

DQ 


UJ 


Fig.  140. 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  237 

ENTASIS  OF  THE  ROMAN  COLUMN 

The  Romans  seem  to  have  adopted  one  general  method  of  dimin- 
ishing or  tapering  their  columns,  evidently  based  on  the  Ionic  and 
Corinthian  shafts  of  the  Greek  Orders.  In  adapting  to  their  own  pur- 
poses the  Greek  entasis,  they  made  no  allowance  for  the  fact  that  their 
columns  were  frequently  used  attached  to  a  curtain  wall,  but  seem  to 
have  borrowed  the  Greek  method  outright,  merely  simplifying  it  for 
their  own  readier  use. 

The  general  proportions  of  the  bases  and  columns  of  the  Roman 
Order  may  be  more  carefully  studied  in  Plate  LVII,  in  which  three 
well-known  examples  of  column  shafts  are  drawn  out  to  an  equal 
height. 

The  Doric  shaft  is  that  used  in  the  Villa  at  Albani  near  Rome ;  the 
Ionic  column  is  taken  from  the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  about  100 
B.  C.;  and  the  Corinthian  is  that  used  on  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  about 
120  to  124  A.  D.,  although  the  column  itself  is  of  earlier  date.  These 
columns  are  all  shown  drawn  out  to  the  same  height,  but  have  a 
different  base  diameter. 

The  Doric  column  is  about  7  J  diameters  high ;  and  it  will  be  noted 
that  if  a  base  were  used  with  this  column,  it  would  bring  its  height  up  to 
7f  diameters,  or  substantially  the  eight  diameters  that  has  been 
adopted  in  modern  usage  for  the  height  of  the  Roman  Doric  column. 
The  fact  that  this  is  an  early  example  may  help  to  account  for  the  omis- 
sion of  the  base  and  for  the  extra  weight  of  the  shaft. 

In  the  Doric  Order  of  the  Theater  of  Marcellus,  the  columns  are 
8  diameters  high,  and  at  the  top  taper  one-seventh  of  their  lower 
diameter. 

The  Ionic  column  from  the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis  is  8£  diame- 
ters high.  This  column,  we  must  remember,  in  its  original  use  in  this 
Temple,  was  shown  attached  to  or  decorating  the  face  of  a  curtain  wall. 
The  Ionic  column  used  in  the  second  story  of  the  Theater  of  Marcellus 
is  9  diameters  high. 

The  column  from  the  Pantheon  is  about  9-£  diameters  high,  and 
has  a  capital  excellently  proportioned  in  relation  to  the  shaft. 

The  shaft  from  an  interior  column  of  the  Pantheon  has  been  care- 
fully measured;  and  its  exact  diameter  at  various  points  of  its  height  is 
shown  at  the  left  in  Fig.  141.  Its  total  height  (42  feet  6  inches)  is 
divided  into  15  modules  and  26  parts,  from  the  top  of  the  necking  to  the 


359 


238 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


bottom  of  the  shaft,  between  the  points  shown  on  this  drawing.  Each 
module  or  semi-diameter  is  subdivided  into  30  parts,  and  the  diminu- 
tion of  the  column  is  care- 
fully figured  in  these  parts. 
At  the  right  of  this 
•drawing  is  shown  a  shaft 
displaying  a  method  which 
almost  parallels  that  em- 
ployed on  the  column  from 
the  Pantheon ;  and  this 
method  may,  for  general 
purposes,  be  considered  to 
apply  to  the  tapering  of  all 
Roman  shafts.  The  only 
difference  between  this 
modern  method  and  the 
Classic  shaft  of  the  Pan- 
theon is  found  in  the 
lower  one-third  of  the 
height,  which,  in  the  Clas- 
sic example,  instead  of  be- 
ing exactly  perpendicular, 
begins  to  feel — very  slightly 
— the  taper  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  shaft.  This 
is  a  refinement  that  would 
ordinarily  be  too  subtile  to 
be  appreciated  or  discerned ; 
and  in  actual  practice  in  a 
shaft  used  on  the  exterior 
of  a  building,  it  is  generally 
considered  best  to  increase 
Fjg-  141-  slightly  the  diameter  at  this 

point  (one-third  of  the  height  of  the  shaft),  instead  of  diminishing  it 
as  was  done  in  this  instance,  when  the  Order  was  used  in  the  in- 
terior, at  a  tremendous  size,  comparatively  isolated,  and  in  such  a 
manner  that  no  great  distance  could  ever  intervene  between  the  spec- 
tator and  the  object  itself.  For.  all  ordinary  purposes,  the  method 


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360 


ALBANIA 

°l   .....  '1*  *f- 


*PANTHEDNA 

°L  i  •  •  '  .'I"  2^ 


PLATE  LVII. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plata  LVII.) 


361 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


239 


shown  at  the  right  of  this  drawing  is  sufficiently  distinguished  and 
exact. 

ROMAN  PEDIMENTS 

Fig.  142  shows  two  methods  of  proportioning  a  pediment.  The 
upper  one  is  the  Renaissance  custom  that  is  shown  by  Serlio ;  the  lower 
is  a  method  given  by  the  Roman  architect  and  writer,  Vitruvius. 

Of  these  two  methods  the  lower  is  more  appropriate  to  buildings 
of  tremendous  size,  such  as  those  erected  by  the  Romans;  while  the 


PEDIMENT*  PROPORTIONS 


THE  ^METHOD-  OFvSEEUQ- 


9, 


QF'  VSTSWMS- 


Fig.  142. 

Renaissance  method  of  Serlio  would  be  more  appropriate  for  use  on 
modern  work.  In  this  illustration  it  will  be  seen  that  the  radius  of  the 
arc  that  determines  the  upper  point  of  the  pediment,  and  therefore  its 
height,  is  found  as  indicated,  by  measuring  down  on  the  center  line, 
from  a  point  at  the  height  of  the  top  member  of  the  cornice,  a  distance 
equal  to  one-half  the  pediment  width,  and  then,  with  the  point  thus 
obtained  as  a -center,  striking  a  circle  passing  through  the  two  ends 
of  this  same  member.  The  intersection  of  this  circle  with  the  per- 
pendicular center  line  of  the  pediment,  gives  the  center  for  the  arc 
that  determines  the  pediment  height. 


363 


240 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


In  the  method  of  Vitruvius,  the  entire  width  across  the  face  of  the 
pediment  is  divided  into  nine  parts ;  and  the  distance  of  one  of  these 
parts  is  given  to  the  plain  face  or  tympanum  of  the  pediment  at  the 
center.  By  dividing  the  width  into  eight  instead  of  nine  parts,  a  tym- 
panum height  on  the  center  line  would  be  obtained  that  would  be  ap- 
proximately midway  between  those  shown  in  these  two  methods. 

ROMAN  INTERCOLUMNIATION 

The  Roman  custom  in  the  spacing  of  columns  is  of  much  greater 
interest  to  the  architect  of  to-day  than  the  custom  of  the  Greeks,  in  that 
the  Romans  were  not  held  down  by  the  considerations  that  restricted 
the  Greeks  in  the  use  of  available  lengths  of  stone  which  they  could 
quarry  or  handle  for  their  supporting  lintels.  Yet  the  Romans,  it  must 
also  be  remembered,  generally  used  Orders  of  tremendous  size,  and 
employed  them  on  buildings  quite  different  in  their  whole  composition 

and  style  from  those  on  which 
we  now  employ  the  column;  so, 
as  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  said 
that  we  should  generally  space 
our  columns  farther  apart  than 
was  even  the  Roman  custom. 

In  all  Doric  work,  the  col- 
umn must  always  occur  directly 
under  a  triglyph;  but,  instead  of 
the  two-  or  three-triglyph  spacing 
of  the  Greeks,  we  find  that  the 
Romans  frequently  spaced  their 
columns  with  three  triglyphs  and 
four  metope  spaces  occurring  be- 
tween the  triglyphs  that  come  on 
the  center  lines  of  the  column 
shafts,  as  in  the  Theater  of 
Marcellus  at  Rome;  and  while 

the  Renaissance  authorities  united  in  giving  them  lesser  spaces  than 
this  (Fig.  143),  modern  custom  and  practice  pay  but  little  regard  to 
these  precedents.  It  is  now  considered  proper  to  space  the  columns 
at  any  distance  that  the  best  solution  of  the  problem  may  require,  the 
only  consideration  being  that  they  shall  not  be  so  far  apart  as  to  give 


-  TEE ATK£ 


FoVUdio      JO  M 
5ca-m.oz.zi    &  M- 


FeXT  °  .  ,  i  ,  ,  i 
•  vSo  WSJOVJJN  I -MODULE. 


364 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


241 


ROMAN-IONIC- 


the  effect  of  insufficient  stability  of  support.  Of  course,  in  spacing 
columns  at  greater  distances  than  those  given  by  Vignola  and  other 
authorities,  it  will  generally  be  found  advisable  to  decrease  their 
height  slightly  in  relation  to  their  diameter,  in  order  to  give  the  col- 
umn a  greater  effect  of  solidity  and  strength. 

The  Roman  use  of  columns  placed  against  the  face  of  the  piers 
of  an  arcade,  requires  a  certain  relation  between  the  proportions  of  the 
column  and  its  spacing  and  height.  These  are  best  studied  by  noting 
the  spacing  of  the  columns  apart  in  diameters.  In  the  Tabularium, 
the  columns  are  spaced  apart  from  center  to  center  five  diameters. 
In  the  Theater  of  Marcellus  and  in  that  of  Pompey,  this  distance  was 
five  and  one-quarter  diameters;  and  in  the  Basilica  Julia  it  was  five 
and  one-half.  The  distance  from  center  to  center  of  the  columns  on 
the  Colosseum  is  seven  and  one-half  diameters.  In  this  building,  all 
the  columns — Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian — are  the  same  diameter 
at  the  base.  In  the  Theater  of  Marcellus,  the  Doric  columns  are 
eight  diameters  high,  and  taper  at 
the  top  to  seven-eighths  of  their 
lower  diameter.  The  Ionic  col- 
umns in  the  second  story  are 
nine  diameters  high,  and  their 
lower  diameter  is  the  same  as 
the  upper  diameter  of  the  Doric 
column  below.  In  the  Colos- 
seum, the  Doric  (or  Tuscan)  col- 
umns on  the  first  story  are  nine 
and  one-half  diameters  high,  and 
the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  col- 
umns are  just  eight  and  three- 
quarters  diameters  in  height. 
These  departures  from  the  or- 
dinary rules  are  probably  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  of  the 

rather  special   manner  in  which 

Fie  144 
the  columns  are  here  employed. 

Additional  height  was  necessary,  in  order  to  allow  room  for  the  vault- 
ing over  the  corridor  inside.  On  the  first  story  the  height  is  obtained 
by  increasing  the  length  of  the  column  shaft;  and  in  the  other  stories 


-l-Moi>uiJt- 


365 


242 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 


*BQMAN  -CDfcJNTJIAN- 


this  additional  height  is  gained  in  the  dado,  which  breaks  out  into  a 
sort  of  pedestal  underneath  the  column  shafts.  The  awkwardness 
of  this  solution  is  displayed  by  the  fact  that  the  architect  was  driven 
to  place  between  the  faces  of  his  piers  an  additional  dado  or  solid 
balustrade  in  order  to  act  as  a  parapet  for  the  corridors  in  the  sec- 
ond and  third  stories — an  architectural  makeshift  that  he  would  un- 
doubtedly have  much  preferred  to  omit. 

In  Fig.  143,  the  example  of  Roman  Doric  intercolumniation  from 

the  Theater  of  Marcellus,  where 
columns  are  used  on  the  face  of 
an  arcade,  the  columns  are 
shown  spaced  apart  4J  diame- 
ters; while  the  practice  of  Pal- 
ladio,  Scamozzi,  and  Vignola, 
where  the  column  is  used  alone, 
is  to  space  them  apart  from  three 
to  four  diameters,  or  four  to  five 
diameters,  on  centers. 

The  Ionic  intercolumniation 
.shown  in  Fig.  144,  again  indi- 
cates the  arrangement  of  the 
:  Theater  of  Marcellus,  and  shows 
below  it  the  spacing  of  Palladio, 
Scamozzi,  and  Vignola.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  in  the  The- 
ater of  Marcellus,  the  Ionic 
Order  occurs  directly  over  the 
Doric  Order  below;  and  in  both 
instances  the  column  is  attached 
to  a  wall,  and  is  separated  from  its  neighbor  by  the  arches  of  the 
arcade. 

Roman  Corinthian  column  spacing  is  shown  in  several  of  the  well- 
known  examples  in  Fig.  145;  in  addition  to  which  the  dimensions  and 
proportions  of  the  columns  on  some  of  the  principal  temples  are  as 
follows : 

In  the  Temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli,  where  the  columns  are  18  feet 
5  inches  high,  and  are  raised  on  a  high  basement,  they  are  9|  diame- 


1NCANTADA-  vSALOJSIlCA. 


B/^SJLICA.  OF  ANTQN1NV5  • 
VT.  aa 

.  6". 


TXMPLE  or  JVE^RS  UODJt 


Peer  . 
-So  PARTJ  -w 


Fig.  145. 


366 


PANTHEON^MAIN^DOORWW 


PLATE  LVIII. 
(A  reproduction  at  small  size  of  Portfolio  Plate  L.VIII.) 


367 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  243 


ters  high,  the  capital  being  just  one  diameter.  In  this  instance  it  was 
the  evident  intention  of  the  designer  to  obtain  a  stumpy  effect. 

In  the  Temple  at  Nimes  the  columns  are  30  feet  high,  with  a 
diameter  of  6  feet  9  inches,  and  the  intercolumniation  is  two  diameters. 
The  columns  of  the  Portico  of  the  Pantheon  are  45  feet  3  inches  or 
9j  diameters  high,  and  the  intercolumniation  is  2\-  diameters. 

In  the  Temple  of  Vesta  at  Rome,  the  columns  are  48  feet  3  inches 
high  or  1(H  diameters,  and  the  intercolumniation  is  H  diameters.  In 
this  temple  the  tall  and  slender  column  shafts  are  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  the  building  was  crowded  in  and  surrounded  by  higher  struc- 
tures, and  this  environment  made  the  extra  column  height  essential 
in  order  to  obtain  the  necessary  dignity. 

In  the  Temple  of  Mars  Ultor,  the  columns  are  57  feet  9  inches  or 
10  diameters  high,  and  the  intercolumniation  is  1£  diameters. 

The  columns  of  the  Frontispiece  of  Nero  are  58  feet  high,  as  are 
also  the  columns  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus. 

ROMAN  PILASTERS 

The  use  of  pilasters  by  the  Romans  was  very  different  from  the 
Greek  custom,  and  the  pilaster  is  given  a  much  more  important  place 
in  their  architectural  development. 

The  Roman  pilaster  in  the  later  periods  is  practically  the  same 
as  the  column  in  its  treatment  of  the  capital  and  base,  and  therefore 
quite  different  from  che  Greek  anta.  The  question  of  diminishing 
the  shaft  at  the  top  is  one  that  seems  to  have  been  left  largely  to  the 
discretion  of  the  designer,  and  no  general  rule  can  be  given  that  will 
apply  invariably.  In  some  instances  the  procedure  follows  the  same 
method  as  used  in  the  column  itself,  and  at  other  times  the  shaft  is 
carried  up  in  a  plumb,  perpendicular  line  from  the  base.  In  general, 
the  same  considerations  that  have  been  given  in  the  discussion  of  the 
pilaster  treatment  in  Part  I  may  be  either  applied  exactly  as  there  out- 
lined, or  may  be  varied  by  the  designer  at  his  own  discretion. 

In  most  Classic  instances  the  pilaster  was  treated  exactly  the 
same  as  the  column.  It  was  given  the  same  cap  and  base;  the  shaft, 
of  course,  being  plain  and  square  in  plan.  As  regards  the  pilaster 
dimension  at  the  neck  and  base,  there  is  considerable  difference  of 
custom  among  the  oldest  examples.  In  Roman  practice  the  pilaster 
is  sometimes  treated  with  sides  tapering  in  the  same  manner  as  the 


369 


244  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

sides  of  the  column  and  exactly  to  agree  with  it.  At  one  time,  the 
whole  shaft  will  be  treated  with  the  exact  diminution  given  to  the  ac- 
companying column;  at  others,  the  pilaster  is  of  the  same  width  at  the 
neck  as  at  the  base,  the  size  being  determined  by  the  average  between 
the  diameter  dimensions  of  the  column  at  neck  and  base,  approaching, 
if  anything,  more  nearly  the  larger  than  the  smaller  diameter.  In 
other  cases — as,  for  example,  where  pilasters  alone  are  used — they  are 
generally  made  straight  and  of  equal  width  throughout  their  entire 
height;  but  even  then  they  are  sometimes  given  an  entasis  the  same 
as  the  column.  The  shafts  of  the  pilaster  are  generally  treated  to 
agree  with  the  columns  with  which  they  are  used.  They  may  be 
plain,  fluted,  or — especially  in  Renaissance  work — paneled. 

The  projection  of  the  pilasters  from  the  wall  was  generally  about 
from  one-quarter  to  one-half  their  width;  but  sometimes  a  greater 
depth  was  required,  in  order  that  they  should  remain  free  from  pro- 
jecting belt  courses  or  horizontal  cornices  that  stopped  against  them. 
If  given  greater  depth  than  this,  a  pilaster  is  apt  to  compare  unfavor- 
ably with  the  column  itself,  and  to  give  a  clumsy,  stiff  effect,  while 
causing  the  column  by  contrast  to  appear  thinner.  The  pilaster 
should  always  be  used  against  the  wall  behind  a  column,  in  order  to 
receive  the  beam  or  entablature  which  it  carries.  Occasionally  a 
round  half-column  or  three-fourths  column  may  be  used  for  the  same 
purpose  in  place  of  the  pilaster,  but  this  use  is  comparatively  rare  in 
old  work.  It  has  the  obvious  disadvantage  that  if  an  exact  half-col- 
umn is  used,  it  appears  to  the  eye  of  less  size  than  the  entire  columns 
which  stand  free  from  their  surroundings,  while  any  horizontal  courses 
cutting  into  it  have  a  tendency  to  divide  or  cut  off  its  apparent  height 
and  diameter. 

Possibly  an  intimate  and  thorough  acquaintance  with  a  large 
variety  of  moulding  sections,  together  with  a  nice  appreciation  of  their 
proportions  and  use,  is  the  most  important  result  for  which  the  student 
can  hope  from  the  study  of  the  Orders.  Certainly  it  is  the  most  tan- 
gible return,  the  only  one  that  can  be  considered  as  of  greater  impor- 
tance being  an  unconscious  development  of  the  sense  of  proportion 
which  cannot  fail  to  result  from  an  earnest  study  of  the  old  examples. 
An  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  reasons  governing  the  various  pro- 
portions of  columns  and  the  different  sections  of  mouldings,  will  result 
in  an  equally  subtile  sense  of  proportion  in  regard  to  the  outlines  and 


370 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  245 

the  composition  of  the  various  parts  of  a  building  or  group  of  buildings. 
This  sense  may  also  be  developed  by  a  study  of  the  history  of  the  va- 
rious races  and  builders,  and  by  a  knowledge  of  the  purpose  for  which 
the  buildings  were  intended,  of  their  comparative  height  and  surround- 
ings, of  the  location  of  the  Order  or  mouldings  on  the  building  and 
the  purposes  they  were  intended  to  fulfill.  If,  in  addition,  the  student 
is  able,  from  the  contrast  between  the  effect  of  any  executed  moulding 
section  as  given  to  his  eye  and  its  actual  contour  in  the  section  outline, 
to  deduce  the  relation  that  the  one  bears  to  the  other,  he  will  have  gone 
far  on  the  road  toward  a  mastery  of  architecture. 

EXAMINATION  PLATES 

In  addition  to  the  following  Examination  Plates,  the  student 
is  expected  to  make  such  sketches  or  drawings  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  Order,  from  the  descriptions  and  references  in  the 
text,  as  will  enable  him  to  understand  thoroughly  the  different 
parts  and  their  general  forms  and  proportions. 

The  following  plates  are  to  be  drawn  out  to  the  required 
sizes,  and  sent  to  the  School  for  correction.  The  plates  should  be 
carefully  and  thoroughly  drawn  out  in  pencil  before  attempting  to 
ink  them  in,  with  the  exception  of  the  three  studies  mentioned  in 
problem  10,  which  may  be  submitted  in  pencil  for  correction,  the 
student  finishing  them  in  ink  for  his  own  possession  at  any  time 
after.  All  of  the  large  plates  are  to  be  drawn  on  a  half-sheet  of 
Strathmore  smooth-finish  or  Whatman's  hot-pressed  drawing 
paper,  with  the  border  line  laid  out  to  the  size  given,  12  by  16A 
inches;  and  the  paper  should  be  trimmed  with  a  half -inch  border 
outside  of  this  line,  making  the  paper  size  of  the  finished  plate 
13  by  17^  inches. 

The  measurement  figures  given  on  the  various  plates  may  be 
omitted  from  the  drawings  made  by  the  student. 

The  titles  of  the  plates  are,  generally  speaking,  to  be  lettered 
in  the  same  fashion  as  are  the  principal  drawings  illustrating  this 
Instruction  Paper.  The  student  should  first  be  careful  to  place 
pencil  guide-lines  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  his  letters,  for  both 
capitals  and  small  letters. 

The  date,  the  student's  name  and  address,  and  the  plate  num- 


371 


246  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

ber  should  be  lettered  on  each  plate  in  one-line  letters,  such  as  are 
used  in  the  title  of  Fig.  47. 

PLATE  A 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  to  the  size  of  12  by  16^  inches  a 
plate  showing  the  Roman  Doric  Order.  This  plate  should  be  ar- 
ranged in  the  same  manner  as  Plates  VII  and  VIII  (Part  I),  and 
should  show  a  Classic  Roman  Doric  Order  complete  in  all  its  parts. 
The  student  may  use  either  the  Mutular  or  Denticular  style,  as  he 
may  elect. 

PLATE  B 

The  student  should  draw  out  the  complete  Roman  Doric  col- 
umn after  the  manner  shown  in  Plate  LVII,  but  employing  the 
method  of  determining  the  entasis  given  at  the  right  in  Fig.  141, 
and  employing  the  capital  and  base  shown  in  Plate  VIII  (Part  I). 
The  height  of  the  column  should  be  eight  diameters;  and  the  flut- 
ing, which  should  be  shown  in  the  previous  problem  plate,  may 
here  be  omitted.  This  column  should  be  drawn  on  paper  of  the 
same  height  as  the  other  plates,  but  of  much  narrower  width. 

PLATE    C 

The  student  is  to  draw  a  bay  of  an  arcade,  employing  the 
Roman  Doric  Order,  on  a  plate  of  the  size  of  12  by  16^  inches, 
IIe%  should  refer  to  Figs.  98  and  99  for  the  proportions  of  this 
arcade,  but  should  so  arrange  his  composition,  that,  without  losing 
the  proportions  of  the  arch  opening  or  the  relations  of  the  column 
diameter  to  its  height  and  to  the  entablature,  he  may  yet  omit  the 
plain  section  of  the  wall  occurring  between  the  Order  entablature 
and  the  archivolt,  marked  A  in  Fig.  99.  In  his  drawings,  the 
center  of  the  arch  should  be  the  center  line  of  his  paper,  which 
will  enable  him  to  include  the  two  columns  and  their  piers.  He 
may  utilize  anyone  of  the  Doric  Orders  shown  in  the  illustrations 
of  this  part. 

PLATE    D 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  to  the  .size  of  12  by  16^  inches  a 
plate  showing  the  Roman  Ionic  Order.  This  plate  should  be  ar- 
ranged in  the  same  manner  as  Plate  XIV  (Part  I),  but  should 
illustrate  the  Order  shown  in  Plate  XIII  (Part  I),  and  should 
show  a  classic  Roman  Ionic  Order  complete  in  all  its  parts. 


372 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  247 

PLATE    E 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  the  Roman  Ionic  column  from  the 
Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  complete,  as  shown  in  Plate  LVIJ, 
establishing  his  entasis  after  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  141,  as 
before.  This  column  should  be  fluted;  and  the  same  requirements 
as  to  height,  size  of  paper,  etc.,  that  applied  to  Plate  B,  will  also 
hold  true  of  this  drawing. 

PLATE    F 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  to  the  size  of  12  by  16A  inches  a 
plate  showing  the  Roman  Corinthian  Order.  This  plate  should 
be  similar  in  arrangement  to  Plate  XXI  (Part  I),  and  should 
show  a  Classic  Roman  Corinthian  Order  complete  in  all  its  parts. 

The  student  should  employ  for  this  plate  the  Classic  Roman 
Order  from  the  exterior  of  the  Pantheon  shown  in  Plate  LIU. 

PLATE    Q 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  an  entire  column  and  sha'ft  of  the 
Roman  Corinthian  Order,  employing  the  method  of  determining 
the  entasis  shown  in  Fig.  141.  Be  is  to  take  the  column  and 

o 

shaft  from  the  Temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina  illustrated  in 
Plate  LIT. 

PLATE    H 

The  student  is  to  draw  out  at  the  size  of  12  by  16^  inches  the 
main  doorway  of  the  Pantheon,  shown  in  Plate  LVIII.  He  may 
omit  the  metal  doors,  pilasters,  and  transom  work  shown  on  this 
plate,  in  order  to  increase  the  size  of  his  doorway.  The  section 
through  the  entablature  may  then  be  shown  inside  of  the  door 
opening. 

PLATE    J 

The  student  is  to  draw  inside  the  border  outlines  of  12  by 
16^  inches  the  following  examples  of  Roman  Classic  ornament: 

In  the  upper  left-hand  quarter  of  his  paper,  he  is  to  draw  the 
entablature  from  the  Temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina;  and  in 
the  upper  right-hand  corner,  the  entablature  from  the  Temple  of 
the  Sun,  both  shown  in  Plate  LIV.  In  the  lower  left-hand  corner, 
he  is  to  draw  the  entablature  from  the  Temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli, 
and  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner,  the  Corinthian  capital  and 
base  from  the  same  temple  shown  in  the  same  drawing  (Fig.  130). 


373 


248  STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS 

The  three  entablatures  are  to  be  all  of  the  same  height;  and  the 
capital  and  base,  from  the  column  of  the  Temple  of  Yesta,  of  a 
size  best  adapted  to  fill  the  remaining  space. 

PLATE    K 

This  problem  is  to  consist  of  three  drawings;  but  they  are 
not  required  to  be  elaborately  finished.  In  Plate  LI  is  shown  a 
method  of  constructing  a  Roman  Ionic  Order;  and  in  Plate  LV  is 
shown  a  similar  method  of  constructing  the  Corinthian  and  Com- 
posite Orders.  The  student  is  to  make  three  drawings,  each  with 
a  border  outline  size  of  12  by  16^  inches,  employing  this  method 
of  construction  and  carrying  it  to  a  point  that  will  sufficiently 
show  his  acquaintance  with  its  employment.  The  carving,  it  is 
necessary  only  to  block  in;  and  these  three  plates  may  be  left  in 
pencil  instead  of  being  inked  in. 

The  object  of  this  examination  problem  is  to  familiarize  the 
student  with  these  methods  of  proportioning,  which  are  simpler 
and  more  readily  comprehended  and  remembered  than  the  more 
elaborate  "modules"  and  "parts"  systems. 

FREEHAND  EXAMINATION  SKETCHES 

The  student  is  required  to  draw  freehand  the  following 
sketches,  utilizing  the  information  he  has  obtained  from  the  Plates 
included  in  this  Instruction  Paper,  and  is  to  be  particular  to  ren- 
der the  drawings  so  as  to  indicate  a  clear  understanding  of  their 

O  O 

proportions  and  of  the  character  of  the  carving  and  ornament. 

These  sketches  are  to  be  laid  out  in  perspective  as  described 
in  the  Instruction  Paper  on  that  subject;  and  are  to  appear  when 
complete,  as  the  model  given  in  Fig.  110.  A  quarter-sheet  of  the 
same  paper  used  for  the  other  examination  plates  may  be  employed 
for  these  sketches. 

These  perspective  studies  are  to  be  made  by  the  student  at 
the  time  when  he  is  studying  the  separate  Orders;  and  they  should 
all  three  be  sent  to  the  School  together,  when  the  last  one  is  com- 
pleted. 

PLATE    L 

A  sketch  of  the  Roman  Doric  Order  shown  in  perspective 
similar  to  Fig.  110.  The  outline  size  is  to  be  8|  by  12  inches. 


374 


STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS  249 

PLATE    M 

A  sketch,  in  perspective,  of  the  Itoman  Ionic  Order,  using 
any  one  of  the  styles  shown  in  the  Instruction  Paper,  and  ar- 
ranged in  the  same  manner  and  at  the  same  size  as  in  the  preced- 
ing Plate  (L),  using  Fig.  110  as  a  model. 

PLATE    N 

A  sketch  of  a  Roman  Corinthian  Order,  employing  any  of 
the  types  shown  and  arranged  in  the  same  manner  and  at  the  same 
size  as  Plates  L  and  M,  above. 


375 


GLOSSARY 


A   GLOSSARY    OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS 
AND  CLASSICAL  PROPER   NAMES 


In  the  scheme  of  pronunciation,  all  long  vowels  are  marked;  those  having  no 
quantity  indicated  are  short. 


Abacus  (ab'a-kus).  The  square  plinth  or  tablet  forming  the  upper  or  crown- 
ing member  of  the  capital  of  a  column  or  pillar,  supporting  the  Classical 
entablature.  (See  Fig.  61.) 

Abutment  (a-but'ment).  The  solid  masonry  construction  supporting  each 
side  of  an  arch,  and  calculated  to  resist  its  thrust.  A  pier  or  buttress 
built  against  a  wall  to  receive  or  transmit  a  thrust.  (See  Plate  XXIX.) 

Acanthus  (a-kan'thus).  A  spiny  plant  whose  leaf  is  used — in  conventional- 
ized form — as  a  decoration  for  capitals,  brackets,  etc.  (See  Fig.  69.) 

Acropolis  (a-krop'o-lis).  The  upper  or  higher  part  of  a  Grecian  city;  hence,  a 
citadel  or  castle;  generally  used  with  special  reference  to  the  Acropolis 
at  Athens,  crowned  with  the  Parthenon.  (See  Frontispiece  illustration.) 

Acroter  (ak'ro-ter),  Acroterium  (ak-ro-te'ri-um) ;  plural,  Acroteria  (ak-ro-te'- 
ri-a).  A  small  pedestal  placed  on  the  apex  or  at  the  basal  angle  of  a 
pediment  to  support  a  statue  or  other  ornament;  a  statue  or  ornament 
placed  on  such  a  pedestal.  (See  Fig.  45.) 

.ffigean  (e-je'an).     A  "sea"  or  gulf  of  the  Mediterranean,  lying  east  of  Greece. 

^Egina  (e-jl'na).  The  capital  city  of  an  island  of  the  same  name  in  the  ^Egean 
Sea,  containing  a  famous  Greek  Doric  temple  of  Pallas  Athene  or  Miner- 
va, the  goddess  of  wisdom  and  war. 

Agrigentum  (ag-ri-jen'tum).  A  city  on  the  south  coast  of  Sicily  (the  modern 
Girgenti),  noted  for  its  Doric  temple  of  Zeus  and  many  other  Greek 
structures  dating  from  before  the  Carthaginian  conquest  in  the  5th  cen- 
tury B.  C. 

Agrippa  (a-grip'pa).  A  Roman  general,  born  B.  C.  63,  the  leading  statesman 
of  the  reign  of  Augustus.  The  present  Pantheon  was  erected  on  the  site 
and — in  part — from  the  materials  of  an  earlier  temple  built  by  him,  dedi- 
cated in  27  B.  C. 

Aizani  (i-zan'i).  A  small  town  of  Phrygia,  Asia  Minor,  containing  some  early 
remains  of  Greek  workmanship.  (See  Fig.  135.) 

Akroter  (ak'ro-ter).     Same  as  Acroter. 

Albani  (al-ba'ni).  A  villa  near  Rome  containing  an  unusual  example  of  the 
Roman  Doric  Order.  (See  Fig.  117.) 

Alberti  (al-ber'te),  Leone  Battista.  A  Renaissance  architect  and  writer  on 
architecture. 


378 


GLOSSARY  253 

Ambulatory  (am'bu-la-to-ri).  A  covered  passage  or  walk,  generally  located 
just  within  the  main  walls  of  a  building;  a  passage  around  the  choir  in 
the  apse  or  chancel  of  a  cathedral,  or  between  the  columns  and  walls  of  a 
circular  building.  (See  Fig.  78.) 

Amphiprostyle  (am-phip'ro-stil).  Provided  with  a  columned  portico  at  each 
end.  (See  Figs.  33  and  34.) 

Amphitheatre  (am-fi-the'a-ter).  A  structure  whose  plan  is  laid  out  on  a  sys- 
tem of  curves  around  a  central  pit  or  arena,  and  generally  intended  for 
spectacular  purposes.  (See  Fig.  112.) 

Ancon  (an'kon).  A  boss  or  projection  left  on  a  block  of  masonry  to  serve  as  a 
console  or  small  bracket.  The  vertical  corbel  supporting  the  cornice  in  a 
Roman  doorway.  (See  Figs.  138  and  139.) 

Ancona  (an-co'na).  A  town  on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  containing  a  Roman  single 
arch  in  a  comparatively  good  state  of  preservation,  dating  from  about 
112  A.  D.,  erected  in  honor  of  Trajan.  This  arch  is  unique  from  the  fact 
that  it  can  be  approached  only  by  ascending  a  flight  of  steps.  (See 
Fig.  137.) 

Andron  (an'dron).  An  open  space,  court,  or  passage  in  a  Greek  building;  also 
the  portion  of  a  house  especially  appropriated  for  males. 

Andronicus  Cyrrhestes  (an-dron'i-kus  sir-rhes'tez).  A  Syrian  mathematician, 
best  known  as  the  builder  of  the  so-called  Tower  of  the  Winds  in  Athens. 
(See  Fig.  72.) 

Annulet  (an'nu-let).  A  small  fillet,  circular  in  plan  and  usually  square  or 
angular  in  section,  under  the  echinus  of  the  Doric  capital.  It  is  also 
sometimes  used  at  the  base  of  the  column  and  in  connection  with  other 
mouldings.  (See  Figs.  41-44;  and  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  Plate  XXXIX.) 

Anta  (an'ta).  Plural,  antae.  Greek  pilasters,  placed  at  the  ends  of  the  side 
walls  of  a  temple,  forming  the  corners,  whose  bases,  capitals  and  propor- 
tions differ  from  the  accompanying  columns,  when  columns  are  placed 
between  them.  (See  D,  Fig.  2;  also  Fig.  91.)  These  columns  arc  said 
to  be  in  antis — i.  e.,  between  antae.  (See  Plate  XXXV,  Temple  of 
Diana  Propylaea.) 

Antefix  (an'te-fiks).  Plural,  antefixes.  Ornamental  blocks  placed  at  regular 
intervals  on  the  eaves  or  cornices  of  Classic  buildings  to  cover  the  termi- 
nation of  the  tiling  ridges.  (See  Plates  XXXVI  and  L.) 

Anthemion  (an-the'mi-on).  Sometimes  called  "honeysuckle."  A  floral 
ornament  employed — generally  with  the  acroteria — to  decorate  Classic 
friezes  and  capital  neckings.  (See  Plate  XL  and  Fig.  92.) 

Antonsnus  (an-to-ni'nus).  A  Roman  emperor,  A.  D.  138-161.  (See  Plate 
LIV.) 

Apollo  Didymaeus  (a-pol'lo  did-i-me'us).  One  of  the  many  name  sunder 
which  the  Olympian  god  Apollo  was  known.  In  his  honor  was  built  a 
temple  near  Miletus  in  Asia  Minor,  a  splendid  example  of  the  Ionic  Order. 
(See  Fig.  71.) 

Apophyge  (a-pof 'i-je) .  The  cavetto  or  concave  sweep  at  the  top  and  bottom 
of  some  column  shafts,  leading  to  the  capital  and  base;  the  hollow  or 
scotia  beneath  the  echinus  of  the  earliest  Doric  capitals,  leading  to  the 
shaft.  (See  Figs.  122,  126,  and  128.) 


379 


254  GLOSSARY 

Apse  (aps).  The  curved  or  angular  and  vaulted  end  of  a  church,  back  of  the 
altar. 

Aqueduct  (ak'we-dukt).  An  engineering  work  employed  to  carry  a  conduit 
for  water  from  one  distant  point  to  another.  In  crossing  a  valley,  it 
generally  consists  of  a  series  of  arches  resting  on  piers.  (See  Fig.  101.) 

Araeostyle  (a-re'6-stil).  An  arrangement  of  columns  having  four  diameter 
spaces,  or  more  than  three,  between  their  shafts,  center  to  center.  (See 
Fig.  19.) 

Arcade  (ar-kad').  A  continuous  series  of  arches  resting  either  on  piers  or 
columns.  (See  Figs.  21  and  101.) 

Arch  (arch).  A  member,  usually  carved,  spanning  an  opening  in  a  wall  or  col- 
onnade, and  supporting  the  wall  or  other  members  above  the  opening. 
(See  Figs.  4  and  134).  In  the  "flat  arch,"  the  separate  parts  of  which  it 
is  composed  are  so  shaped  as  to  support  one  another  without  rising  to  a 
curve. 

Architrave  (ar'ki-trav).  (a)  The  lower  division  of  a  Classic  entablature;  that 
member  which  rests  immediately  upon  the  column  capital  and  supports 
those  portions  of  the  structure  which  are  above  it.  (See  Fig.  3.)  (6)  The 
ornamental  moulding  running  around  the  extrados  of  an  arch.  Also 
called  Archivolt.  (See  Fig.  4.)  (c)  Sometimes,  less  properly,  the  mould- 
ed enrichments  on  the  face  of  the  jambs  and  lintels  of  a  door,  window,  or 
other  opening.  Also  called  Antepagment.  (See  Figs.  84  and  95.) 

Archivolt  (ar'ki-volt).  The  series  of  mouldings  on  the  face  of  an  arch  follow- 
ing the  contour  of  the  extrados,  and  ending  upon  the  imposts.  (See 
Fig.  4.) 

Archway  (arch'wa).     A  way  or  passage  under  an  arch.     (See  Fig.  4.) 

Aries  (arl).  A  city  of  southern  France,  celebrated  for  its  many  Roman 
remains. 

Arris  (ar'is).  The  projecting  angle  or  edge  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  sur- 
faces; particularly  the  edges  of  mouldings,  and  the  sharp  edges  between 
adjacent  channels  in  the  Doric  column.  (See  B,  C,  and  D,  Fig.  49.) 

Artemis  (ar'te-mis).  Greek  name  of  the  Roman  goddess  Diana.  Daughter 
of  Zeus  and  Latona,  and  twin  sister  of  Apollo.  Born  on  the  island  of 
Delos.  One  of  the  earliest  instances  of  the  use  of  the  Greek  Ionic  Order 
seems  to  have  been  on  a  temple  at  Ephesus  dedicated  to  this  goddess. 

Assisi  (as-se'se).  A  city  in  central  Italy  containing  several  Roman  ruins,  in- 
cluding a  Corinthian  temple  to  Minerva  belonging  to  the  Augustan  era. 

Astragal  (as'tra-gal).  A  small,  convex  moulding,  generally  ornamented  or  cut 
into  the  form  of  a  string  of  beads.  Used  in  Classic  architecture,  espe- 
cially in  connection  with  the  egg-and-dart  moulding,  and  between  the 
faces  of  the  different  projections  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  architraves. 
(See  A  and  G,  Plate  XL,  and  Plate  XLIII.) 

Astylar  (a-sti'lar).  A  Classic  style  of  building  without  columns,  substituting 
in  their  place  a  plain  wall. 

Atlantes  (at-lan'tez) .  Figures  or  partial  figures  of  men  used  in  the  place  of 
columns  or  pilasters  to  support  an  entablature;  also  called  telamones. 
When  female  figures  are  used,  they  are  called  caryatids  or  caryatides. 


380 


GLOSSARY  255 

Attic  (at'ik).  The  upper  part  of  a  building.  A  story  appearing  in  the  facade 
of  a  building  above  the  cornice  and  entablature.  Sometimes  applied  to 
that  portion  of  a  triumphal  archway  above  the  cornice  and  below  the 
crowning  member,  as  in  the  Arch  of  Trajan  at  Ancona.  (See  Fig.  137.) 

Attic  (at'ik).     Athenian. 

Attic  Base.  A  base,  properly  used  with  the  Ionic  order,  consisting  of  an  upper 
torus,  a  scotia,  and  a  lower  torus,  separated  by  fillets.  (See  A,  Fig.  57.) 

Auditorium  (au-di-to'  ri-um).  That  portion  of  a  public  hall  of  assemblage  in- 
tended for  spectators. 

Augustus  (au-gus'tus).  One  of  the  Roman  emperors,  B.  C.  27  to  A.  D.  14. 
During  his  reign  were  built  the  Pantheon  at  Rome  and  other  well-known 
architectural  structures,  including  two  temples  of  Vesta,  one  in  the  Ro- 
man Forum  and  one  at  Tivoli. 

Aurelian  (au-re'li-an).  One  of  the  Roman  emperors,  270-275  A.  D.  He 
built  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  on  the  Quirinal  Hill. 

Axis  (ak'sis).  The  center  line  of  an  object  or  structure  as  seen  in  plan  or  in 
elevation;  a  straight  line  dividing  a  body  into  two  equal  parts.  (See  Figs. 
65  and  66.) 

B 

Balustrade  (bal-us-trad').  A  railing  or  wall  with  upper  rail  or  coping  sup- 
ported by  balusters.  (See  C,  Plate  XXXIV.) 

Band  (band).     A  flat  member  or  moulding  of  small  projection.     (See  Fig.  61.) 

Base  (bas).  The  part  of  a  column  between  the  upper  part  of  the  pedestal  and 
the  bottom  of  the  shaft;  or,  if  there  is  no  pedestal,  between  the  bottom  of 
the  column-shaft  and  the  plinth;  the  lower  projecting  part  of  the  wall  of 
a  room,  consisting  of  a  plinth  and  its  mouldings.  (See  Figs.  3  and  4 ;  also 
Figs.  57,  61,  111,  122,  and  126.) 

Basilica  (ba-sil'i-ka).  A  Roman  Hall  of  Justice,  whose  general  plan  was  after- 
wards adopted  as  the  form  of  the  early  Christian  church. 

Basilica  Julia  (ba-sil'i-ka  joo'li-a).  The  temple  in  the  center  of  the  Forum 
Julium,  the  first  of  the  smaller  Roman  Forums,  constructed  by  Julius 
Caesar  in  honor  of  his  wife.  (See  Fig.  140.) 

Bassae  (bas'se).  A  town  in  Arcadia,  Greece,  near  Phigalia,  noted  for  the 
Doric  and  Ionic  Temple  of  Apollo,  which — next  to  the  Theseum  at  Athens 
— is  the  most  completely  preserved  specimen  of  Classic  Greek  art. 

Baton  (ba'ton).  The  stem  or  wand  supporting  the  cauliculi  (small  scrolls  and 
leaves)  of  the  Corinthian  capital.  (See  Plate  XVI ) 

Batter  (bat'ter).  A  backward  or  receding  slope  in  the  face  of  a  wall  as  it 
rises. 

Bead  (bed).     A  small,  half-round  moulding.     (See  Fig.  5.) 

Bead-and-Reel  (bed-and-rel).  A  much-used  decorative  moulding  consisting 
of  a  small  sphere  and  one  or  two  circular  discs,  repeated;  used  only  to 
ornament  a  small  bead  moulding .  (See  A  and  C,  Plate  XL.) 

Beak-moulding  (bek-mold'ing).  A  moulding  with  a  downward  projecting 
part  on  its  exterior  edge— the  whole  outline  somewhat  resembling  a  bird's 


381 


256  GLOSSARY 

beak — to  make  a  drip  for  rain  water  and  prevent  it  from  working  back 
against  the  face  of  the  wall  beneath.  (See  M,  Fig.  46.) 

Bell-shaped  (bel'-shapt).     In  the  form  of  a  bell;  flaring.     (See  Fig.  73.) 

Belly  (bel'i).  The  slight  swell,  or  increase  in  diameter,  which  sometimes  oc- 
curs between  the  base  and  neck  of  a  column.  It  may  refer  to  that  part 
near  the  center  of  the  column  where  its  diameter  becomes  greater  than  at 
the  base.  (See  at  "Shaft,"  Fig.  61.) 

Belt  course  (belt  kors).  A  course  of  stone  or  moulded  work  .carried  at  the 
same  level  across  or  around  a  building.  (See  F,  Fig.  2.) 

Beni-Hassan  (ba'ne-has'san) .  A  village  on  the  Nile,  near  which  are  several  an- 
cient rock-cut  tombs  dating  from  about.  3000  B.  C. 

Beneventum  (ben-e-ven'tum.)  An  inland  town  of  Italy,  northeast  of  Naples, 
where  there  is  an  arch  of  date  114  A.  D.  erected  in  honor  of  Trajan. 

Boss  (bos).  A  projecting  ornament,  placed  at  the  intersections  of  the  ribs  or 
groins  in  vaulted  or  flat  roofs  or  ceilings,  and  in  other  situations.  (See  in 
doorway,  Plate  LVIII.) 

Bounding  wall.     A  wall  enclosing  any  area  or  defining  a  boundary. 

Bracket  (brak'et).  An  ornamental  projection — generally  of  partially  rounded 
outline — intended  to  support  a  statue,  pier,  cornice,  etc;  a  corbel.  (See 
Figs.  133  and  139.) 


Cable  (ka'b'l).  A  small,  raised  moulding  of  rounded  section,  made  to  resemble 
the  spiral  twist  of  a  rope;  used  for  ornamenting  the  plain  surfaces  of 
fillets,  or  the  furrows  of  flutings ;  when  used  on  a  column,  this  method  of 
decoration  is  termed  cabling. 

Caisson  (kas'son).  A  deep  panel  or  coffer  in  a  ceiling  or  soffit.  (See  Plates 
XXX  and  XXXI;  also  Fig.  103.) 

Calyx  (ka'liks).  The  outer  covering  of  a  carved  flower  ornament.  (See  Plate 
XV.) 

Campanile  (kamp'a-nll).     A  bell  tower,  especially  one  built  separate  from  a 

church.     (See  Plate  XXVI.) 
Canals  (ka-nalz').     The  name  sometimes  given  to  the  channels  in  the  Doric 

triglyph.     (See  Fig.  7.) 
Canalis  (ka-na/lis).     The  space  enclosed  between  the  fillets  of  the  Ionic  volute, 

convex  in  section  in  early  work;  and  later,  concave.     (See  Plate  XLII.) 
Canted  (kan'ted).     Set  at  an  angle;  tilted  or  moved  from  a  horizontal  line. 

(See  volute  in  Fig.  120.) 
Cap  (kap).     A  top  or  crowning  member,  or  series  of  members — as  the  capital 

of  a  column.     (See  Fig.  3.) 
Capital  (kap'i-tal).     The  uppermost  part  of  a  column,  pillar,  or  pilaster,  which 

serves  as  a  crown  to  the  shaft,  and  occurs  between  it  and  the  entablature 

or  other  upper  portions  of  the  structure.     (See  Figs.  3  and  25.) 
Capitoline  (kap'i-to-lm).     The  name  given  to  one  of  the  seven  hills  on  which 

Rome  was  built,  situated  at  the  end  of  the  Forum;  upon  it  was  built  the 

Capitol. 


382 


GLOSSAKY  257 

Caryatid  (kar-i-at'id).  Plural,  Caryatides.  A  feinale  figure  serving  as  a 
column  to  support  an  entablature,  or  used  in  place  of  a  column  under  any 
other  similar  conditions.  (See  Figs.  80  and  81.)  Corresponding  male 
figures  are  called  Atlantes. 

Castor  and  Pollux  (kas'tor  and  pol'luks).  Two  Greek  deities  in  whose  honor 
was  erected  a  temple  at  Cora. 

Catellus  (ka-td'lus).  A  Roman  leader,  under  whose  direction  the  Tabularium 
in  Rome  was  built. 

Cathetus  (kuth'e-tus).  The  vertical  line  drawn  through  the  eye  and  volute  of 
the  Ionic  capital,  upon  which  is  basrd  the  geometrical  method  of  laying 
out  the  spiral.  (See  Fig.  11.) 

Cauliculus  (kau-lik'u-lus).  Plural,  Cauliculi.  The  volutes  or  small  stalks 
xinder  the  flower  on  the  abacus  in  the  Corinthian  capital.  Also  some- 
times called  Helices  (plural  of  Helix).  (See  Plates  XV  and  XVI.) 

Cavetto  (ka-vet'6).     A  hollowed-out  or  concave  moulding.     (See  Fig.  5.) 

Cella  (sel'a).  The  room  or  chamber  containing  the  image  of  the  Deity,  which 
formed  the  nucleus  of  an  ancient  Greek  or  Roman  temple,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  additional  rooms  often  combined  with  it  to  form  the 
complete  temple.  (See  Figs.  33,  34,  and  67.) 

Channel  (chan'el).  (a)  One  of  a  series  of  grooves,  usually  vertical  and  of 
elliptical  section,  separated  by  sharp  edges  or  arrises,  and  forming  a  char- 
acteristic feature  of  the  shaft  of  the  Greek  Doric  Order.  The  channel  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  flute,  of  which  the  section  is  an  arc  of  a  circle. 
(See  Fig.  49.)  (b)  The  V-sunk  incision  occurring  in  the  face  of  the  Doric 
triglyph.  (See  Fig.  7.) 

Chambers  (cham'berz),  Sir  William.  An  English  architect  and  writer  on 
architecture,  belonging  to  the  end  of  the  English  Renaissance  period. 

Chamfer  (cham'fer).  A  slope  or  bevel  generally  referring  to  anything  ori- 
ginally right-angled,  as  a  square  corner,  cut  away  so  as  to  make  an  angle 
with  the  sides  that  form  it.  (See  B,  Figs.  47  and  48.) 

Cheneau  (sha'no).  A  cresting  or  ornamental  motive  on  the  upper  part  of  a 
cornice.  The  gutter,  and  also  the  projecting  pipe  to  carry  away  water 
from  the  gutter.  (See  Plate  L.) 

Choragic  (ko-raj'ik).  Pertaining  to,  or  in  honor  of,  a  choragus.  (See  Figs.  75, 
76,  and  77,  and  Plate  XLIX.) 

Choragus  (ko-ra'gus).  The  Greek  title  given  to  the  superintendent  of  a  musi- 
cal or  theatrical  entertainment,  who  provided  a  chorus  at  his  own  ex- 
pense. 

Classic  (klas'ik).  Relating  to  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  work  as  examples  of 
architecture  of  the  first  rank  or  estimation,  which  are  still  studied  as  the 
best  models  of  fine  building.  Established  by  custom  and  precedent  as  a 
model — hence  correct;  pure;  and,  sometimes,  coldly  perfect. 

Clepsydra  (klep'si-dra) .  A  water  clock,  a  contrivance  used  anciently  for 
telling  time  by  the  gradual,  measured  discharge  of  water  from  a  small 
aperture,  the  flow  for  a  given  unit  of  time  being  first  determined. 

Clearstory  (kler'sto-ri) .  The  upper  story  of  a  church,  perforated  with  win- 
dows forming  chief  source  of  light  for  central  portions  of  the  building.  It 


383 


258  GLOSSARY 

stands  above  the  triforium  or  blind  story,  where  such  is  present.  Spelled 
also  Clerestory. 

Cloister  (klois'ter).  The  covered  passageway  connecting  a  cathedral  and 
chapter  house,  or  running  around  a  courtyard. 

Coffer  (kof'er).  A  sunk  panel  or  compartment  of  an  ornamental  character 
in  a  ceiling  or  soffit;  generally  enriched  with  mouldings,  and  having  a 
rose,  star,  or  other  ornament  in  the  center.  (See  Fig.  14.) 

Collarino  (kol-a-re'no).  The  necking  of  the  Doric  or  Ionic  column.  (See  Fig. 
10  and  Plate  XLIII.) 

Colosseum  (kol-o-se'-um).  A  celebrated  amphitheater  at  Rome.  Was  com- 
menced 72  A.  D.  by  Vespasian,  continued  by  Titus,  and  finally  dedi- 
cated by  Domitian  in  82  A.  D.  Sometimes  spelled  Coliseum.  (See  Fig. 
112.) 

Colonnade  (kol-o-nad').  A  row  of  connected  columns  placed  at  regular  inter- 
vals. (See  Plate  XXV.) 

Column  (kol'um).  A  part  of  the  Classic  Order  (see  Fig.  3).  A  solid,  vertical 
body  of  greater  height  than  thickness,  generally  serving  as  a  support.  A 
cylindrical  or  slightly  tapering  body  set  vertically  upon  a  stylobate,  and 
surmounted  by  a  spreading  mass  which  forms  its  capital. 

Columniation  (ko-lum'ni-a-tion) .  An  arrangement  of  columns  where  their 
placing  and  relation  to  each  other  form  a  principal  feature  of  a  design. 

Comparative  (kom-par'a-tiv).  In  proportion  or  in  relation  to  another  mem- 
ber or  part. 

Composite  (kom-poz'it).  The  name  of  the  last  of  the  five  Orders,  and  a  "com- 
posite" of  them  all,  the  proportions  being  borrowed  from  the  Corinthian, 
while  the  capital  which  characterizes  it  is  composed  from  those  of  the 
other  Orders,  borrowing  a  quarter-round  from  the  Tuscan  or  Roman 
Doric,  the  leafage  from  the  Corinthian,  and  volutes  from  the  Ionic  Order. 
(See  Fig.  17.) 

Concord  (kon'kord).  (a)  The  name  of  one  of  the  principal  Greek  Doric  tem- 
ples of  Agrigentum.  (b)  A  Corinthian  temple  in  Rome  of  date  about 
7  B.  C.,  belonging  to  the  Augustan  period. 

Conge  (kon'zha).  A  moulding  in  the  form  of  a  quarter-hollow  or  a  cavetto; 
an  apophyge.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Constantine  (kon'stan-tin) .  One  of  the  emperors  of  the  East  (A.  D.  272-337), 
after  whom  is  named  a  Corinthian  triumphal  arch  in  the  Roman  Forum. 
(See  Fig.  136.) 

Console  (kon'sol).  A  supporting  bracket,  generally  greater  in  height  than  its 
projection.  (See  Figs.  13  and  16.) 

Contour  (kon'toor).  The  outline  of  the  face  or  surface  of  a  moulding  or  pro- 
jecting feature  of  any  sort;  the  configuration  of  the  surface  of  the  ground 
or  landscape.  (See  Plate  XXXIX.) 

Coping  (ko'ping).  The  capping  or  covering  of  a  wall,  usually  projecting  over 
it,  and  beveled  to  throw  off  water. 

Cora  (ko'ra).  A  city  in  southern  Italy  (the  modern  Cori),  containing  an  ex- 
ample of  a  rectangular  Roman  Doric  temple  of  unusual  grace  and  artistic 
feeling,  dating  from  about  80  B.  C.  (See  Figs.  109  and  138.) 


384 


GLOSSARY  259 

Corbel  (kor'bel).  A  projecting  block  of  stone,  or  a  series  of  bricks  or  stones 
set  out  one  over  another  to  form  a  bracket  or  to  support  an  overhanging 
member  of  wall.  (See  Fig.  97.) 

Corinth  (ko'rinth).  A  city  of  Greece  situated  on  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  fa- 
mous for  its  early  Greek  Doric  temples. 

Cornice  (kor'nis).  Any  moulded  projection  which  crowns  or  finishes  the  ob- 
ject to  which  it  is  affixed;  the  uppermost  division  of  an  entablature. 
(See  Fig.  3.) 

Corinthian  (ko-rin'thi-an).  The  most  ornate  and  slender  in  its  proportions 
of  the  three  main  Classic  Orders.  (See  Figs.  50  and  128.) 

Corona  (ko-ro'na).  The  projecting,  crowning  member  of  a  cornice,  situated 
above  the  bed-moulding.  (See  page  108.) 

Cossutius  (cos-su'shi-us).  A  Roman  architect,  who  probably  designed  the 
capitals  in  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus  at  Athens. 

Coupled  (kup'ld).  Linked  together.  "Coupled  columns"  are  arranged  in 
pairs,  with  their  bases  and  capitals  touching,  and  with  a  correspondingly 
wider  span  between  the  grouped  pairs.  (See  Figs.  19  and  20.) 

Cove  (kov).  A  cavetto,  or  concave  moulding;  a  member  whose  section  is  a 
concave  curve.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Cresting  (kres'ting).  An  ornamental  finish  to  a  wall  or  ridge.  The  upper 
member  of  a  cornice  or  ridge,  generally  intended  to  be  decorative  in  char- 
acter. (See  Plate  L.) 

Crowning  (krou'ning).  Finishing  at  the  top.  The  upper  member  of  a  cor- 
nice or  other  architectural  form.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Cupola  (ku'po-la).  A  small  vaulted  structure  affixed  to  the  roof  of  a  building, 
generally  hemispherical  or  curvilinear  in  outline,  covering  a  circular  or 
polygonal  area,  and  supported  either  upon  four  arches  or  upon  solid 
walls. 

Curvilinear  (kur-vi-lin'e-ar).     Bounded  by  curved  lines. 

Cusp  (kusp)  The  intersecting  point  of  the  small  arcs  decorating  the  internal 
curves  of  Gothic  foils ;  also  the  figure  formed  by  the  intersection  of  such 
arcs. 

Cyclopean  (si-klo-pe'an).  Pertaining  to  the  Cyclops,  a  fabled  race  of  giants; 
therefore,  large  in  scale  and  massive  in  size. 

Cylindrical  (si-lin'dri-kal).  Having  the  form  of  a  cylinder;  the  term  is  also 
applied  to  a  section  having  an  extended  convex  surface. 

Cyma  (si'ma).  A  moulding  whose  section  is  a  double  curve  or  wave-like  in 
form.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Cyma  recta  (si'ma  rek'ta).  A  cyma  whose  section  is  hollow  in  its  upper  part 
and  swelling  below.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Cyma  reversa  (si'ma  re-ver'sa).  A  cyma  of  section  swelling  above  and  hollow 
below;  same  as  ogee.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Cymatium  (si-ma'shi-um).  A  crowning  moulding  composed  of  the  cyma. 
(See  Plate  IX.) 


385 


260  GLOSSARY 

i 

D 

Dado  (da'do).  The  die,  or  the  square  or  rectangular  intermediate  part,  of  the 
pedestal  to  a  column,  located  between  the  base  and  the  cornice;  also, 
that  part  of  a  straight  pilaster  between  the  plinth  and  the  impost  mould- 
ing; also,  the  finishing  of  the  lower  part  of  the  walls  in  the  interior  of  a 
house.  (See  Fig  3.) 

Daphnis  (daf'nis).     A  Greek  architect  of  Miletus. 

Decastyle  (deka'stil).  Having  ten  columns  in  front,  or  consisting  of  ten 
columns. 

Degree  (de-gre').  («)  A  synonymous  term  for  "part"  used  in  the  measurement 
and  proportioning  of  the  Orders.  (6)  A  proportional  part  of  an  arc  of  a 
circle. 

Delos  (de'los).  An  island  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  celebrated  for  its  Greek  Doric 
Temple  of  Apollo. 

Demeter  (de-me'ter).  Goddess  of  agriculture ;  the  Roman  Ceres.  At  Paestum 
and  at  Eleusis  there  are  remains  of  temples  dedicated  to  her. 

Denticular  (den-tik'u-lar).  Containing  dentils;  when  applied  to  an  Order, 
containing  a  course  of  small  rectangular  blocks  in  the  cornice.  (See  Plate 
IV  and  Fig.  110.) 

Dentil  (den'til).  One  of  the  series  of  small  cubes  into  which  the  square  mem- 
ber in  the  bed-moulding  of  an  Ionic,  a  Corinthian,  a  Composite,  or,  occa- 
sionally, a  Roman  Doric  cornice  is  cut.  (See  Plate  IV  and  Fig.  110.) 

Detail  (de'tal).  Enlarged  portion,  a  section  or  part  of  a  plan  or  elevation, 
usually  drawn  at  large  scale  for  the  use  of  the  workmen. 

Diagonal  (di-ag'o-nal) .  A  straight  line  drawn  from  opposite  angles,  dividing 
a  figure  into  two  angular  parts. 

Diameter  (di-am'e-ter) .  The  distance  through  the  shaft  of  a  column  from 
side  to  side ;  generally  referring  to  the  lateral  distance  through  the  lower 
part  of  a  shaft  immediately  above  the  base  moulding. 

Diana  Propylaea  (di-an'a  prop-i-le'a).  One  of  the  smaller  Greek  temples  at 
Eleusis,  showing  a  simple  use  of  columns  in  antis.  (See  Plates  XXXV  and 
XXXVI.) 

Diastyle  (dl'a-stfl).  The  term  describing  a  Classic  arrangement  of  columns, 
having  the  space  of  four  diameters  from  center  to  center  of  their  shafts, 
and  where  the  intercolumniation  measures  three  diameters.  (See  Fig. 
19.) 

Die  (dl) .  The  cubical  part  of  the  pedestal  between  its  base  and  cap ;  the  dado. 
(See  Fig.  3.) 

Dimension  (di-men'shon).  The  measured  distance  between  two  points;  the 
size  of  a  room  or  building. 

Diminution  (dim-i-nu'shon) .  The  gradual  reduction  in  size  towards  the  end 
of  an  object  or  column.  Tapering. 

Diocletian  (dl-o-kle'shan).  A  Roman  emperor,  whose  best  known  remaining 
architectural  monument  is  the  famous  Baths  in  Rome,  in  the  ruins  of 
which  have  been  found  late  (about  290  A.  D.)  Roman  examples  of  the 
various  Orders.  (See  Plate  LVI.) 


386 


GLOSSARY  261 

Dipteral  (dip'te-ral).  A  structure  consisting  of  or  furnished  with  a  double 
range  of  columns.  (See  page  148;  also  ends  of  Fig.  34.) 

Ditriglyphic  (dl-trl-glif 'ic) .  An  interval  or  space  between  two  columns,  ad- 
mitting of  the  use  of  two  triglyphs  on  the  entablature.  (See  Fig.  18.) 

Domitian  (do-mi'sh-yan) .     A  Roman  emperor  ruling  81-96  A.  D. 

Doric  (dor-ik).  The  oldest,  heaviest,  and  simplest  of  the  three  principal 
Greek  and  Roman  Orders.  (See  Fig.  50.) 

Drip  (drip).  A  moulding  or  projecting  member  intended  to  throw  off  rain 
water  and  prevent  its  running  down  the  wall  of  a  building.  (See  H  and 
M,  Fig.  46.) 

E 

Eaves  (evz).  The  edge  or  lower  part  of  a  roof  projecting  beyond  the  surface 
of  the  wall  to  throw  off  water.  (See  Fig.  59.) 

Eccentric  (ek-sen'trik).  Not  having  the  same  center;  referring  to  circles, 
which,  though  related,  are  not  struck  from  the  same  center. 

Echinus  (e-ki'nus).  (a)  Properly  the  egg-and-dart  ornament  cut  or  painted 
on  the  quarter-round  moulding  that  occurs  in  column  capitals.  (6)  The 
convex  projecting  moulding — of  eccentric  curve  in  section  in  Greek  ex- 
amples— supporting  the  abacus  of  the  Doric  capital;  hence  the  corre- 
sponding feature  in  the  capitals  of  the  other  Orders,  or  any  moulding  of 
similar  profile  to  the  Doric  echinus.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Egg-and-Dart  (see  Echinus).  A  Classic  moulding  decorated  with  an  oval,  cgg- 
shapcd  ornament  alternating  with  a  narrow,  pointed,  dart-shaped  form, 
used  only  to  decorate  an  echinus.  (See  I,  Plate  XL.) 

Eleusis  (e-lu'sis).  A  city  of  Attica  famed  for  the  celebration  of  the  mysteries 
of  Demeter. 

Elevation  (el-e-va'shon).  A  geometrical  drawing  of  a  vertical  wall,  or  a  part 
of  a  building  or  other  structure  in  vertical  projection.  (See  Fig.  2.) 

Encarpus  (en-kar'pus).  A  sculptured  ornament  in  imitation  of  a  festoon  of 
fruits,  leaves,  or  flowers,  or  of  other  objects,  hanging  between  two  points. 
(See  Figs.  119  and  130.) 

Engaged  (en-ga'jd).  Attached;  especially  a  circular  column  built  one-third 
or  one-quarter  into  a  wall,  the  remainder  projecting  beyond  and  free 
from  the  wall  face.  (See  B.  Fig.  100.) 

Entablature  (en-tab'la-tur).  That  part  of  a  lintel  construction,  or  of  a  Classi- 
cal structure,  consisting  of  horizontal  members,  which  rests  upon  sup- 
porting columns  or  vertical  members  and  extends  upward  to  the  roof. 
In  the  Classic  Orders  it  comprises  the  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice. 
(See  Fig.  3.) 

Entasis  (en'ta-sis).  A  swelling  or  outward  curve  along  with  an  inward 
taper  in  the  vertical  profile  of  the  shaft  of  a  column.  (See  Fig.  87.) 

Epicurius  (ep-i-ku'ri-us).  A  famous  physician.  A  temple  to  Apollo  Epicu- 
rius  erected  at  Phigalia.  (See  Fig.  64.) 

Epidauros  (ep-i-dau'ros).  A  town  in  Argolis,  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of 
^Esculapius,  containing  several  examples  of  late  Greek  (architecture, 
particularly  a  tholos  or  circular  temple.  (See  Plate  L  and  Fig.  78.) 


387 


262  GLOSSARY 

Epistylium  (e-pi'stl-li-um)  or  Epistyle  (e'pi-stil).  The  architrave  of  a  Classic 
entablature.  See  Architrave. 

Ercchtheum  (e-rek-the'um) .  An  Ionic  temple  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens, 
begun  479  B.  C.,  completed  408  B.  C.  (See  Figs.  68,  80-85.) 

Eustyle  (u'stil).  Denoting  an  arrangement  of  columns  having  an  inter- 
columniation  or  space  between  column  shafts  of  two  and  one-fourth 
diameters.  (See  Fig.  19.) 

Exedra  (eks'e-dra).     A  raised,  semicircular  or  elliptical  platform  with  seat 

facing  towards  the  center,  often  used  in  public  places  as  a  memorial. 
Extrados(eks-tra'-dos).     The  exterior  curve  of  an  arch.     (See  Fig.  96.) 


Facade  (fa-sad').  The  front  view  or  elevation  of  an  edifice,  or  any  one  of  its 
principal  faces  if  it  has  more  than  one.  (See  Fig.  45.) 

Facure  (fa'shur).  A  plain  facing  of  varying  width  defined  by  angles  or  mould- 
ings upon  each  side,  as  in  the  architrave  of  the  Classic  entablature. 

Fascia  (fash'i-a).  Any  broad,  flat  member  or  moulding  with  but  little  pro- 
jection, as  the  horizontal  bands  or  broad  fillets  into  which  the  architraves 
of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  entablatures  are  divided.  (See  Plates  V  and 
XI.) 

Faustina  (faus-tl'na).  Wife  of  Antoninus  Pius;  notorious  for  her  licentious- 
ness. (See  Plate  LIV.) 

Fenestration  (f  en-es-tra'shon) .  An  arrangement  of  windows  where  their 
placing  and  relation  to  each  other  form  the  principal  feature  of  the  de- 
sign. 

Fillets  (fil'ets).  Small  mouldings  having  the  appearance  of  narrow,  flat  bands. 
When  on  wall  surfaces,  they  are  rectangular  in  projecting  section.  They 
are  generally  used  to  separate  other  ornaments  and  mouldings.  (See 
Fig.  5.) 

Floweret  (flou-er-ef).  A  small  flower;  one  of  the  parts  of  the  Classic  Corin- 
thian and  Composite  capitals.  (See  Plate  XV.) 

Flute  (floot).  One  of  a  series  of  curved  furrows,  usually  semicircular  in  plan, 
separated  by  narrow  fillets.  (See  F,  Fig.  49,  and  Figs.  55  and  56.)  When 
such  fillets  are  partially  filled  up  by  a  smaller,  raised,  semicircular  mould- 
ing section,  they  are  said  to  be  cabled. 

Fluting  (floo'ting).  A  groove  or  furrow;  the  system  of  decorating  by  the  use 
of  flutes.  (See  Flute.) 

Fortuna  Virilis  (for-tu'na  vir-i'lis).  A  Corinthian  temple  in  Rome.  (See  Fig. 
123.) 

Frieze  (frez).  That  part  of  an  entablature  which  is  between  the  architrave 
and  the  cornice.  (See  Fig.  3.) 

Frontispiece  (fron'tis-pes).  The  principal  front  of  a  building;  an  ornamental 
figure  or  illustration  facing  the  title-page  of  a  book. 

Fust  (fust) .     The  shaft  of  a  column,  or  the  trunk  of  a  pilaster.     (See  Fig.  3.) 


388 


GLOSSARY  263 

G 

Gable  (ga'bl).  The  name  given  to  an  angular-shaped  wall  surface  projecting 
from  a  roof,  when  occurring  directly  above  a  horizontal  cornice  and 
bounded  by  raking  cornices.  (See  Plate  XXXV.) 

Gibbs  (gibz),  James.  One  of  the  best  known  English  architects  and  writers  of 
the  Renaissance. 

Girth  (gerth).  The  circumference  of  anything;  or  the  distance  around  a 
column. 

Glyphs  (glifs).  The  channels  cut  in  the  face  of  the  Doric  triglyph.  (See 
Fig.  7.) 

Greek  Fret  (grek  fret).  A  geometrical,  repeating  ornament,  generally  used 
to  ornament  a  fascia,  band,  or  frieze.  (See  L  and  N,  Plate  XL.) 

Grille  (gril).  The  barred  metal  work — or  other  material — forming  an  enclos- 
ing screen,  or  protecting  the  openings  of  a  structure.  (See  doorway,  Plate 
LVIII.) 

Groined  (groind).  The  term  applied  to  the  curved  intersection  of  two  vaults 
meeting  each  other  at  any  angle.  (See  Fig.  27.) 

Guilloche  (gi-losh')-  The  term  given  a  series  of  interlocking  circles  or  curved 
lines  forming  an  ornamental,  repeated  design ;  a  Classic  method  of  deco- 
rating a  flat  or  slightly  curved  band.  (See  M  and  O  in  Plate  XL.) 

Guttae  (gut'e),  pi.  of  Gutta.  One  of  a  series  of  pending  ornaments,  generally 
in  the  form  of  a  frustum  of  a  cone — but  sometimes  cylindrical — attached 
to  the  underside  of  the  mutule  and  regula  of  the  Doric  entablature.  (See 
Figs.  7  and  8.)  They  probably  represent  the  wooden  pegs  or  tree-nails 
which  occupied  these  positions  in  primitive  wooden  construction. 


Hadrian  (ha'dri-an).  Roman  emperor,  A.  D.  76-138.  Did  much  towards 
restoring  and  improving  Rome.  Erected  temples  to  Trajan,  Venus,  etc. 

Halicarnassus  (hal-i-kar-nas'sus) .  A  Dorian  city  in  Asia  Minor,  famous  for 
the  mausoleum  built  there  by  Artemis  for  her  husband. 

Hatching  (hach'ing).  A  method  of  drawing  diagonal  parallel  lines  to  indicate 
or  emphasize  certain  parts  of  a  design ;  when  these  are  crossed  by  other 
lines,  the  drawing  is  termed  cross-hatching.  (See  C,  D,  E,  and  F,  Fig.  2.) 

Helix  (he'liks),  pi.  of  Helices  (he'lis-ez).  Any  spiral;  particularly  a  small  vo- 
lute or  twist  under  the  abacus  of  the  Corinthian  capital.  (See  Cauliculus.) 

Hera(he'ra).  Wife  of  Zeus.  Queen  of  the  heavens.  There  existed  a  famous 
statue  of  her  in  the  Temple  of  Argos,  and  at  Samos  a  Greek  Ionic  Temple 
in  her  honor. 

Hercules  (her'ku-lSz).  A  Greek  god.  At  Cora  is  an  early  Roman  Doric 
square  temple  of  Greek  workmanship,  called  by  his  name.  (See  Fig.  139.) 

Hermes  (her'mez).  A  small,  square  shaft,  generally  tapering  toward  the  bot- 
tom and  terminating  at  the  top  in  a  bust  or  head. 

Hexastyle  (heks'a-stfl).     Having  six  columns.     (See  Fig.  33.) 

Hypaethral  (hl'pe'thral).     Open  to  the  sky ;  lacking  a  roof.     (See  Fig.  34.) 

Hypostyle  (hi'po-stll).     Containing  pillars. 


389 


264  GLOSSAKY 

Honeysuckle  (hun'i-suk-1).  An  architectural  ornament  suggested  by  the 
flower,  generally  used  on  a  decorative  frieze.  (See  Q  in  Plate  XL.) 

Hypotrachelium  (hi'po-tra-ke'li-um).  In  the  Doric  Order  the  junction  of  the 
capital  and  the  shaft,  marked  by  a  bevel  or  cut  around  the  lower  edge  of 
the  capital  block.  (See  Fig.  39.) 

I 

Ictinus  (ic-tl'nus).  A  famous  architect  of  Greece  belonging  to  the  second 
half  of  the  5th  century  B.  C.  He  was  the  chief  designer  of  the 
Parthenon  and  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  near  Phigalia. 

Ilissus  (i-lis'sus).  A  small  river  in  Attica  that  flows  through  a  part  of  the  city 
of  Athens. 

Impost  (im'post).  The  horizontal  mouldings  which  receive,  or  upon  which 
rest,  an  arch  springing  from  a  wall  or  square  column.  (See  Fig.  4.) 

Intercolumniation  (in'ter-ko-lum-ni-a'shon).  A  spacing  apart  of  columns. 
The  distance  in  the  clear  between  columns.  (See  Figs.  18,  19,  89,  90,  143, 
144,  and  145.) 

Interior  (in-te'ri-or) .     The  inside  of  a  building,  house,  or  room. 

Intersection  (in-ter-sek'shon).  The  crossing  of  any  two  or  more  lines  at  any 
angle  with  each  other. 

Intrados  (in-tra'dos).     The  interior  curve  of  an  arch.     (See  Fig.  96.) 

Ionic  (I-on'ik).  One  of  the  three  Greek  Orders — named  from  the  Ionic  race, 
by  whom  it  is  hold  to  have  been  developed  and  perfected — the  most  dis- 
tinguishing feature  of  which  is  the  volute  of  the  capital  with  its  "roll" 
ends  and  two  faces.  (See  Fig.  50.) 


Jambs  (jamz).  The  vertical  side  pieces  of  any  opening  in  a  wall,  such  as  a 
door  or  window,  the  top  being  generally  termed  a  soffit.  (See  Fig.  84.) 

Jupiter  Olympus  (ju'pi-ter  6-lym'pus).  The  supreme  Greek  deity.  The  best 
known  temple  to  this  god  is  the  Corinthian  building  at  Athens,  begun  by 
Greek  workmen  about  170  B.  C.,  and  finished  by  them  117  A.  D.  under 
Hadrian.  (See  Plate  LII.) 

K 

Kanawat  (kan'a-wat).     A  town  in  Syria  containing  some  examples  of  early 

Roman  architecture. 
Keystone  (ke'ston).     The  stone  at  the  apex  of  an  arch,  which,  being  last  put 

in  place,  is  regarded  as  keying  or  locking  the  whole  structure  together. 

(See  Figs.  13  and  98.) 


Lacunaria  (la-ku-na'ri-a).  A  paneled  ceiling,  so  called  from  the  sunken  or 
hollow  compartments  composing  it.  (See  Plates  XXX  and  XXXI,  and 
Fig.  103.) 

Lateral  (lat'e-ral).  Proceeding  from  or  to,  or  situated  at,  a  side;  or  at  right 
angles  to  the  length  or  height.  (See  Fig.  61.) 


390 


GLOSSARY  265 

Leaf  and-Dart  (lef-and-dart).    An  ornamental  design — water  plant  and  arrows — 

applied  to  the  ogee.     (See  G  and  J,  Plate  XL.) 
Lintel  (lin'tel).     A  horizontal  piece  of  timber  or  stone  resting  across  columns 

or  piers,  or  upon  the  jambs  of  a  door  or  window,  or  spanning  any  other 

open  space  in  a  wall  or  in  a  columnar  construction,  and  serving  to  support 

superincumbent  weight.     (See  Fig.  2.) 
Liscel  (lis'tel).     A  small,  square  moulding  generally  used  in  conjunction  with 

a  larger  member ;  also  termed  a  fillet.     (See  Fig.  5.) 
Lobes  (lobz) .     Promotions,  especially  when  of  a  rounded  form. 
Longitudinal  (lon-ji-tu'di-nal).     Of  or  pertaining  to  length. 
Lotus  (16'tus).     An  Egyptian  water  plant,  often  used  as  a  decorative  motive 

in  Egyptian  architectural  forms. 
Lozenge  (loz'enj).     A  figure  having  four  equal  sides,  with  two  acute  and  two 

obtuse  angles.     (See  Fig.  S.) 
Lysicrates  (li-sik'ra-tez).     The  name  of  a  Greek  choragus,  which  has  been 

given  to  the  finest  surviving  Greek  choragic  monument.    (See  Figs.  75, 76, 

and  77.) 

M 

Macedonia  (mas-e-don'i-a).     A  country  north  of  Greece. 

Marcellus  (mar-sel'lus).  The  Theater  of  Marcellus  is  the  name  of  a  Roman 
Doric  building  of  circular  plan,  built  in  Rome.  (See  Figs.  113  and  125.) 

Mars  Ultor  (marz  ul'tor).  (Sometimes  called  Mars  Vengeur.)  Mars  was  the 
Roman  god  of  war.  A  temple  in  the  Forum  Augusti  consecrated  B.  C.  2, 
built  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  (See  Fig.  129.) 

Mechanical  (me-kan'i-kal).  Exact;  the  opposite  of  free;  inartistic;  laid  out 
according  to  strict  rule. 

Member  (mem'ber) .  A  part  of  an  Order  or  of  a  building ;  a  column  or  a  mould- 
ing. 

Metope  (met'6-pe).  A  slab  inserted  between  two  triglyphs  of  the  Doric 
frieze ;  sometimes,  especially  in  late  work,  cut  in  the  same  block  with  one 
triglyph  or  more.  (See  Fig.  54.) 

Minerva  Polias  (mi-ner'va  po'li-as).  The  name  of  a  Greek  Ionic  Temple  on 
the  Acropolis  in  honor  of  one  of  the  three  chief  Greek  divinities,  the 
daughter  of  Jupiter.  (See  Plate  XLIV.)  A  temple  in  honor  of  the  same 
goddess  was  erected  at  Priene  in  Asia  Minor.  (See  Plate  XLVI.) 

Miletus  (mi-le'tus).  A  town  in  Asia  Minor  near  which  is  the  temple  of  Apollo 
Didymseus.  (See  Fig.  94.) 

Minute  (min'it).  One  of  the  divisions  of  the  module,  generally  thirty  in  num- 
ber for  the  Greek  Orders,  twelve  for  the  Roman  Doric,  and  eighteen  for 
the  Roman  Ionic  and  Corinthian.  (See  Part.) 

Miter  (rm'ter)  An  angle  of  45° ;  or,  in  construction,  the  union  of  two  pieces 
of  moulding  at  an  angle  of  45°.  When  the  abutting  pieces  are  dressed  to 
an  angle  greater  or  less  than  45°,  the  joint  is  properly  called  a  bevel-joint. 
(See  Fig.  20.) 

Modillion  (mo-dil'yon).     A  projecting  bracket  or  block  used  under  the  corona 


391 


266  GLOSSARY 

in  the  cornice  of  the  Corinthian,  the  Composite,  and — occasionally — the 
Roman  Doric  Orders;  a  corbel;  a  bracket.  (See  Fig.  133.) 

Module  (mod'ul).  A  unit  of  measure  used  in  working  out  the  proportional 
parts  of  an  Order  of  architecture,  invariably  one-half  the  diameter  of  the 
column  at  its  base. 

Monotriglyphic  (mon-5-tri-glif 'ik) .  That  mode  of  intercolumniation  which, 
in  the  Doric  Order,  requires  the  spaced  use  of  one  triglyph  and  two  met- 
opes in  the  entablature  above.  (See  Fig.  18.) 

Moulding  (mold'ing).  An  architectural  ornament  or  member  with  a  surface 
of  varying  contour;  a  projecting  member.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Mutule  (mu'tul).  A  projecting  piece  in  the  form  of  a  flat  block  with  an  orna- 
mented under-surface,  placed  under  the  corona  of  the  Doric  cornice  and 
corresponding  to  the  modillion  of  the  other  Orders.  (See  Fig.  8.) 

N 

Naos  (na'os).  The  central  room  of  a  Classic  temple,  where  were  placed  the 
statue  and  ceremonial  altar  of  the  divinity.  (See  Figs.  32,  33,  and  34.) 

Nave  (nav).  The  main  central  portion  of  a  church  extending — between  the 
side  columns — from  the  choir  back  to  the  main  entrance. 

Neck  (nek).  The  part  of  a  column  occurring  between  the  capital  and  the 
shaft.  (See  Fig.  3.) 

Nemea  (ne-me'a).  A  valley  in  Argolis,  celebrated  for  the  Temple  of  Zeus 
Nemeus.  Also  where  the  Nemean  games  were  held. 

Nerva  (ner'va).     The  name  of  one  of  the  Roman  Forums. 

Nike'  Apteros  (nl'ke  ap'te-ros)  A  temple  on  the  Acropolis  built  in  honor  of 
Nike,  goddess  of  Victory,  Also  called  Wingless  Victory. 

Nimes  (Nem).  A  city  in  southern  France  containing  a  Corinthian  rec- 
tangular temple  'approached  by  a  flight  of  steps,  built  during  the  reign  of 
Hadrian,  often  called  the  Maison  Carree.  (See  Fig.  131.) 

Norcia  (nor'cha).     A  small  Etruscan  town  in  central  Italy. 

Normand  (nor'maund).  A  French  writer  on  architecture  living  during  the 
Renaissance. 

o 

Octastyle  (ok'ta-stil).     Having  eight  columns— as  a  portico  of  a  building 

having  eight  columns  in  front.     (See  Fig.  34.) 
Odeum  (6-de'um).     One  of  a  class  of  buildings  akin  to  theaters,  designed 

primarily  for  the  public  performance  of  musical  contests  of  various  kinds. 
Ogee  (6-je').     A  cyma  recta  or  cyma  reversa;  a  moulding  consisting  of  two 

members,  the  one   concave,  the  other  convex,  or  a  round  and  a  hollow. 

(See  Fig.  5.) 
Opisthodomos  (op-is-thod'6-mos).     An  open  vestibule  within  the  portico  of  a 

temple  at  the  end  behind  the  cella;  in  most  ancient  temples  corresponding 

to  the  pronaos  at  the  principal  end. 
Order  (or'der).     A  column  entire  (including  base,  shaft,  and  capital),  with  a 

superincumbent  entablature,  viewed  as  forming  an  architectural  whole 

or  the  characteristic  element  of  a  style.     (See  Figs.  3  and  50.) 


392 


GLOSSARY  267 

Orientation  (6-ri-en-ta'shon).     The  location  of  a  structure  in  regard  to  the 

direction  it  facos,  especially  in  fronting  toward  the  east. 
Outline  (out'lin).     A  line  which  marks  or  bounds  the  outside  of  a  figure;  a 

sketch  of  any  scheme. 
Ovolo  (o'vo-16).     An  egg-shaped  moulding  in  Roman  work,  sometimes  a 

quarter  of  a  circle  in  section,  but — in  Greek  work — generally  part  of  an 

ellipse  or  hyperbola.     (See  Fig.  5.) 

P 

Paestum  (pes'tum).  A  city  in  Lucania  famous  for  the  ruins  of  two  or  more 
Doric  temples. 

Palatine  (pal'a-tln).     One  of  the  seven  hills  of  Rome. 

Palladio  (pal-lad'i-6).  An  Italian  writer  and  architect,  best  known  for  his 
palaces  at  Vicenza  and  churches  at  Venice.  The  last  great  architect  of 
the  Italian  Renaissance. 

Palmette  (pal-met').  A  conventional  floral  ornament  or  leaf,  more  or  less 
resembling  a  palm  leaf.  (See  P  and  Q,  Plate  XL.) 

Palmyra  (pal-ml'ra).  A  town  in  Syria,  long  since  deserted,  where  yet  remain 
extensive  and  superb  Roman  ruins. 

Pandrosos  (pan-dro'sos).  Daughter  of  Cecrops.  In  her  honor  a  temple 
sanctuary  was  built  at  Athens. 

Panel  (pan'el).  A  compartment  with  raised  margins,  moulded  or  otherwise, 
as  in  ceilings,  wainscots,  and  the  like.  (See  Fig.  9.) 

Pantheon  (pan'the-on).  A  large,  circular  temple  with  a  Corinthian  portico, 
in  Rome,  originally  dedicated  in  reign  of  Augustus  B.  C.  27 — A.  D.  14. 
The  columns,  entablatures,  etc.,  of  the  portico  of  the  present  building, 
which  dates  mostly  from  120-124  A.  D.,  were  parts  of  the  original 
structure.  (See  Figs.  102  and  103.) 

Parapet  (par'a-pet).  A  low  wall  protecting  the  edge  of  a  terrace,  bridge, 
declivity,  etc.  (See  Plates  XXXII  and  XXXIV.) 

Part  (part),  (a)  The  unit  into  which  the  module,  or  one-half  diameter,  of 
columns  is  divided  in  laying  out  the  Roman  ~rders;  TV  of  the  module  for 
the  Tuscan  and  Doric,  and  -£$  of  the  module  f :;  :he  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and 
Composite  Orders.  (&)  A  separate  division,  fraction,  or  fragment  of  a 
whole. 

Parthenon  (par'the-non).  The  Temple  of  Athene  Parthenos  at  Athens.  It 
crowned  the  Acropolis,  and  is  regarded  as  the  most  nearly  perfect  build- 
ing in  the  world.  Begun  about  450  B.  C.  after  designs  by  Ictinus  and 
Callicrates,  under  the  political  direction  of  Pericles,  and  the  artistic 
superintendence  of  the  great  sculptor  Phidias.  Dedicated  438  B.  C. 
(See  Frontispiece  illustration;  also  Fig.  45.) 

Pedestal  (ped'es-tal).  The  base  or  foot  of  a  column,  statue,  or  the  like;  the 
part  on  which  an  upright  work  stands ;  it  consists  of  three  parts,  the  base, 
die,  and  the  cap  or  cornice.  (See  Figs.  3  and  25.) 

Pediment  (ped'i-ment).  The  gable  or  trianguar  end  of  the  roof  of  a  building. 
(See  Fig.  20.) 

Pelasgians  (pel-as'ji-ans).     Name  given  to  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Greece. 


393 


268  GLOSSARY 

Pendentives  (pen-den'tivz).  The  vaulted  portions  supporting  the  angles  of 
a  domed  cupola.  (See  Fig.  28.) 

Pentelic  (pen-tel'ik).  A  Classic  variety  of  pure,  fine-grained  marble,  obtained 
from  Mount  Pentelicus  in  Attica. 

Pericles  (per'i-klez).  A  celebrated  Athenian  statesman  and  orator.  Born 
about  495  B.  C;  died  at  Athens  429  B.  C.  The  Age  of  Pericles  was  the 
Golden  Age  of  Greece,  the  period  of  its  highest  political,  artistic,  and 
literary  development. 

Peripteral  (pe-rip'te-ral).  Having  a  row  of  columns  all  around.  (See  Figs. 
33  and  34.) 

Peristyle  (per'i-stil).  A  range  or  ranges  of  columns  surrounding  any  part  of  a 
temple  or  house.  (See  Figs.  33  and  34.) 

Perspective  (per-spek'tiv).  (a)  A  drawing  or  rendering  of  an  object  so  as  to 
show  it  as  it  would  actually  appear  to  the  eye  of  a  spectator.  The  pro- 
jection— geometrically — on  a  picture  plane  so  that  the  object  drawn  will 
appear  as  when  seen  from  some  particular  point.  (6)  The  apparent 
vanishing  of  parallel  lines  as  their  distance  from  the  eye  is  increased. 

Phidias  (fid'i-as).  A  celebrated  Greek  sculptor  born  about  500  B.  C. ;  died 
about  430  B.  C.  He  was  associated  with  Pericles  in  the  artistic  beauti- 
fying of  Athens.  His  greatest  work  was  the  colossal  gold  and  ivory 
statue  of  Athene  (Minerva)  which  adorned  the  cella  of  the  Parthenon. 

Phigalia  (fi-ga'li-a).  An  ancient  town  in  the  Peloponnesus.  Also  spelt 
Phigalaea.  Noted  for  its  Templs  of  Apollo. 

Pier  (per).  A  mass  of  masonry,  generally  square  in  plan,  used  for  support  or 
to  stiffen  a  wall.  (See  D,  Fig.  2,  and  Fig.  4.) 

Pillar  (pil'ler).  A  round  pier  carrying  the  arches  or  wall  of  a  building.  (See 
C,  Fig.  2.) 

Pilaster  (pi-las'ter).  A  rectangular  column  or  pier,  attached  to  a  wall  and 
projecting  about  one-fourth  to  one-sixth  of  its  breadth  from  the  wall  sur- 
face, corresponding  in  cap,  base,  and  general  proportions  with  the  col- 
umns of  the  Order  with  which  it  is  used ;  but  the  shaft  entasis  of  the 
column  is  frequently  omitted  from  the  pilaster.  (See  Fig.  92.) 

Plan  (plan).  A  drawing  on  a  plane  surface,  of  the  horizontal  section  of  an  ob- 
ject, and  intended  to  show  its  arrangement  and  disposition;  generally  ap- 
plied to  the  horizontal  projection  or  section  of  a  building  drawn  at  a 
small  scale.  (See  Fig.  2.) 

Plane  (plan).     Level ;  an  even  surface  without  elevations  or  depressions. 

Platform  (plat'f orm) .  A  floor  raised  above  the  general  level,  for  the  support 
of  objects  or  people. 

Plinth  (plinth).  A  member,  square  in  plan  and  rectangular  in  elevation, 
forming  the  lowest  division  of  the  base  of  a  column.  (Sae  Fig.  4.)  Tho 
plane,  projecting  surface  at  the  bottom  of  a  wall,  immediately  above  the 
ground. 

Plumb  (plum).     Perpendicular. 

Pollux  (pol'lux).     A  Greek  god,  brother  of  Castor.     (See  Castor.) 

Polycletus  (pol-i-kle'tus).  A  celebrated  Greek  sculptor  and  architect  who 
lived  in  the  last  part  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C. 


394 


GLOSSAKY  269 

Polystyle  (pol'i-stil).  Having  or  supported  by  many  columns,  or  surrounded 
by  several  rows  of  columns. 

Pompeii  (pom-pa'ye).  A  city  in  Campania  founded  6th  century  B.  C.,  buried 
79  A.  D.  by  an  eruption  of  the  volcano  of  Vesuvius. 

Pompey  (pom'pi).  Famous  Roman  general;  born  106  B.  C. ;  murdered  in 
Egypt  in  48  B.  C.  Formed  with  Caesar  and  Crassus  the  First  Trium- 
virate, 60  B.  C. ;  later  a  political  rival  of  Ca3sar,  by  whom  he  was  crushed 
in  civil  war.  A  theater  of  the  Roman  early  period  built  by  Pompey 
himself. 

Porch  (porch).  A  kind  of  outside  vestibule  or  projecting  structure  sheltering 
the  entrance  to  a  building.  (Sae  Figs.  68  and  74.) 

Portico  (por'ti-ko).  The  covered  space  or  porch  in  front  of  a  temple.  (See 
Fig.  102.) 

Poseidon  (po-sl'don).  God  of  the  Sea,  and  said  to  have  built  the  walls  of 
Troy.  Worshiped  throughout  Greece  and  Italy.  Identified  with  the 
Roman  Neptune. 

Posticum  (pos-tl'kum).     The  covered  space  behind  a  temple. 

Priene  (pri-e'ne).  An  Ionian  city  situated  in  Caria,  Asia  Minor,  north  of 
Miletus.  Noted  for  its  Ionic  Temple,  of  Minerva  Polias.  (See  Plate 
XLVI  and  Fig.  93.) 

Profile  (pro'fel  or  -fil).  The  largest  contour  or  outline  of  any  object,  especi- 
ally when  seen  in  silhouette.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Projected  (pro-jek'ted).  Carried  out;  extended;  continued;  delineated  ac- 
cording to  any  system  of  correspondence  between  the  points  of  a  figure 
and  the  points  of  the  surface  on  which  the  delineation  is  made. 

PrOfle  (pron).     Prostrate  or  lying  with  face  down.     (See  Fig.  5.) 

Proportionate  (pro-por'shon-ate).  Bearing  a  certain  harmonious  relation  to 
other  members  or  adjoining  parts. 

Propylaea  (prop-i-le'a),  pi.  of  propylaeum  (prop-i-le'um).  An  important  archi- 
tectural vestibule  or  entrance  to  a  sacred  enclosure,  as  that  of  the  Acropo- 
lis at  Athens.  (See  Fig.  88.) 

Proscenium  (pro-se'ni-um).  The  stage  of  a  theater;  the  wall  separating  the 
stage  from  the  auditorium.  In  the  Classic  theater  the  wall  breaks  back 
and  goes  across  the  rear  of  the  stage,  completely  enclosing  the  portions 
of  the  stage  used  by  the  actors,  and  generally  contains  three  openings 
through  the  back  or  curtained  wall — one  in  the  center,  and  two  smaller 
ones  on  each  side — and  one  in  each  end  or  return  of  the  wall.  In  the 
modern  theater,  the  proscenium  is  that  part  of  the  house  between  the 
curtain  or  drop-scene  and  the  orchestra;  also,  the  curtain  and  the  arch 
or  framework  that  holds  it. 

Prostyle  (pro'stil).  Denoting  a  portico  in  which  the  columns  stand  out  en- 
tirely in  front  of  the  walls  of  the  building  to  which  it  is  attached ;  also  de- 
noting a  temple  or  other  structure  having  columns  in  front  only,  but 
across  the  whole  front.  (See  Plate  XXXIII.) 

Pseudo-dipteral  (su-do-dip'te-ral).  The  term  applied  to  a  temple  falsely  or 
imperfectly  dipteral,  the  inner  range  of  columns  surrounding  the  cella 
being  omitted.  (See  Fig.  33.)  " 


395 


270  GLOSSARY 

Pteroma  (te-ro'ma).  The  space  between  the  wall  of  the  cella  of  a  Classical 
temple  or  any  similar  columnar  structure,  and  the  pteron  or  the  columns 
of  the  peristyle.  (See  Figs.  33  and  34.) 

Purlin  (pur'lin).  Small  roof  beams  resting  upon  the  rafters  and  running 
parallel  with  ridge  and  eaves. 

Pycnostyle  (pic'no-stll).  A  term  denoting  a  colonnade  in  which  the  columns 
stand  very  close  to  each  other,  usually  only  1$  diameters  being  allowed 
to  each  intercolumniation.  (See  Fig.  19.) 

Pylon  (pil'on).  A  monumental  structure  forming  part  of  an  entrance  to  an 
Egyptian  temple  or  other  important  building,  and  consisting  of  a  central 
gateway  flanked  on  each  side  by  a  truncated,  pyramidal  tower  with  walls 
covered  with  sculptures,  the  pyramidal  tower  itself  being  sometimes 
called  a  pylon. 

Pyramidal  (pi-ram'i-dal).     Pertaining  to,  or  having  the  form  of,  a  pyramid. 


Quirinal  (quir'i-nal).  One  of  the  seven  hills  of  Rome,  on  which  is  built  the 
former  summer  Palace  of  the  Popes.  Here  is  the  present  seat  of  the 
Italian  Government,  the  pontifical  residence  now  being  the  Palace  of 
the  Vatican. 

R 

Radial  (ra'di-al).     Shooting  out  or  radiating  from  a  center. 

Radius  (ra'di-us).     A  line  drawn  or  extending  from  the  center  of  a  circle  to 

its  circumference;  the  semi-diameter  of  a  circle  or  sphere. 
Rafter  (rafter).     One  of  the  sloping  beams  of  a  roof,  running  from  ridge  to 

eaves,  to  which  is  secured  the  framework  or  purlins  upon  which  the  outer 

covering  is  nailed. 
Reglet  (reg'let).     A  flat,  narrow  moulding  used  to  separate  members  of  com- 

partments and  panels.     (See  Fig.  9.) 
Regula  (reg'u-la).     A  short  band  or  fillet  of  a  length  corresponding  to  the  tri- 

glyphs  of  the  Doric  frieze,  bearing  guttse  or  drops  on  the  lower  side,  and 

placed  just  below  the  crowning  ta^nia  of  the  architrave.     (See  Fig.  7.) 
Return  (re-turn').     The  turn  and  continuation  of  a  moulding,  wall,  etc.,  in  an 

opposite  or  different  direction. 
Reveal  (re-vel').     The  return  at  the  side  of  an  opening,  or  at  the  end  of  a  per- 

pendicular moulding;  the  vertical  face  of  a  window-opening  or  doorway 

between  the  face  of  the  wall  and  that  of  the  window-frame  or  door-frame. 

(See  Fig.  84.) 
Roll  (rol1).     In  the  Ionic  Order,  the  rounding  end  of  the  volute,  which  rolls  up 

on  itself.     (See  Fig.  61.) 
Rosette  (ro-zef).     A  carved,  conventionalized  imitation  of  a  rose  or  other  de- 

sign of  similar,  circular  outline,  executed  in  some  material.     (See  Fig.  9.) 
Running  dog  (run'ing  dog').     A  Classic,  ornamental  moulding,  generally  used 

in  a  frieze  or  band,  resembling  the  wave  ornament.     (See  M  in  Plate  XL.) 
Rusticated  (rus'ti-ka-ted).     Referring  to  the  treatment  of  a  stone  wall  sur- 

face, where  separate  blocks  are  left  with  a  rough-hewn  surface  projecting 


396 


GLOSSARY  271 

from  the  line  of  the  joints,  which  are  recessed  in  chamfered  or  rectangular 
grooves,  and  whose  widtli  is  emphasized.     (See  Fig.  75.) 


Saturn  (sa'turn).  A  Roman  god  to  whom  was  built  at  Rome  an  elaborate 
Corinthian  temple. 

Scale  (skal).  A  means  of  proportionate  measurement;  graduated,  especially 
when  employed  as  a  rule,  being  marked  by  lines  or  degrees  at  regular  in- 
tervals. (See  at  lower  right  corner,  Plate  II.) 

Scamozzi  (ska-moz'zi).  An  Italian  writer  and  architect,  a  follower  and  pupil 
of  Palladio.  (See  Fig.  120.) 

Scipio  (sip'i-6).  The  name  of  several  Roman  generals  whose  Tombs  near  the 
Appian  Way  are  well  known.  (See  Fig.  108.) 

Scotia  (sko'ti-a).  A  concave  moulding,  as  between  the  fillets  in  the  base  of 
the  Doric  column ;  used  especially  beneath  the  level  of  the  eye.  (See 
Fig.  5.) 

Screen  (skren).  Any  wall  or  construction,  permanent  or  temporary,  which 
covers  or  protects  a  portion  of  a  building,  room,  or  other  space  from  direct 
observation.  A  meshwork  placed  in  a  frame  to  protect  a  portion  of  a 
building,  or  an  opening,  from  the  entrance  of  insects.  (See  Plate  LVIII.) 

Segesta  (se-jes'ta).  A  town  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Sicily,  containing 
some  very  beautiful  Greek  architectural  ruins,  especially  that  of  a  Doric 
temple  of  the  6th  century  B.  C. 

Segmental  (seg-men'tal) .     Relating  to  or  being  a  segment  or  part  of  a  thing. 

Selinus  (se-li'nus) .  A  town  in  southwestern  Sicily,  celebrated  for  the  ruina  of 
the  Temple  of  Zeus. 

Septimius  Severus  (sep-tim'i-us  se-ve'rus).  A  Roman  emperor,  193-211  A.  D., 
in  whose  honor  was  erected  a  triple  archway  with  Composite  columns 
He  died  at  York,  England. 

Serlio  (ser'le-6),  Sebastiano.  An  Italian  architect  and  writer  living  during  the 
time  of  the  Renaissance.  He  designed  a  considerable  number  of  build- 
ings in  France. 

Shaft  (shaft).  That  part  of  the  column  extending  from  the  capital  to  the 
base.  (See  Figs.  3  and  61.) 

Sill  (sil).  The  horizontal  member  at  the  bottom  of  a  door  or  window  (see 
Fig.  84) ;  a  piece  of  timber  or  stone  on  which  a  structure  rests.  (See 
Fig.  84.) 

Soffit  (sof  it).  Ceiling;  applied  to  the  under  side  of  arches  and  of  other  archi- 
tectural members.  (See  Figs.  9  and  14.) 

Spandrel  (span'drel).  The  triangular  space  comprehended  between  the  outer 
curve  of  an  arch,  a  horizontal  line  through  its  apex,  and  a  vertical  lino 
through  its  spring;  also,  the  wall-space  between  the  outer  mouldings  of 
two  arches  and  a  horizontal  line  or  stringcourse  above  thorn,  or  between 
these  outer  mouldings  and  the  intrados  of  another  arch  rising  above  and 
inclosing  the  two.  (See  Fig.  4.) 

Spiny  (spl'ni).  Pointed;  sharply  serrated;  referring  to  certain  forms  of  the 
Greek  acanthus.  (See  Figs.  69  and  73,  and  Plate  XLIX.) 


397 


272  GLOSSAKY 

Stadium  (sta'di-um).  A  large,  rectangular  space  with  a  rounded  end,  and 
open  to  the  sky;  it  was  intended  for  races,  contests,  and  spectacles  of  va- 
rious kinds,  and  surrounded  by  tiers  of  seats  for  spectators. 

Staves  (stavz).  The  supports  or  stems  holding  up  ornamental  portions  of  the 
leafage  on  the  Corinthian  and  Composite  capitals.  (See  Plate  XVI.) 

Stele  (ste'le).  A  headstone  or  funeral  monument  used  by  the  Greeks,  gen- 
erally ending  with  a  crowning  or  cresting  ornament  including  the  akroter 
in  some  of  its  several  forms.  (See  Fig.  86.) 

Stoa  (sto'a).  A  portico,  usually  a  sheltered  portico  and  often  of  considerable 
extent,  conveniently  located  near  a  public  place  and  intended  to  afford 
opportunity  for  walking  or  conversation. 

Stringcourse  (string' kors).  A  belt  or  continuous  band  of  mouldings  extend- 
ing across  the  fagade  of  a  building.  (See  Fig.  2.) 

Structure  (struk'tur).     A  building  of  any  kind. 

Stylobate  (stl'16-bat).  The  platform  — generally  consisting  of  three  steps,  the 
upper  forming  the  floor  of  the  corridor  or  colonnade  around  the  building 
— upon  which  the  Classic  Greek  building  or  the  columns  of  its  surround- 
ing colonnade  rest.  (See  Plate  XXXV  and  Fig.  45.) 

Supercolumniation  (su'per-ko-lum-ni-a'shon) .  The  superposition  of  columns ; 
the  placing  of  one  Order  above  another.  (See  Figs.  23  and  24.) 

Superimposed  (su'per-im-pozd')-  Laid  on  or  added  above  something  else,  as 
one  Order  placed  on  top  of  another.  (See  Figs.  23  and  24.) 

Superincumbent  (su'per-in-kum'bent).     Lying  or  resting  on  something  else. 

Superposition  (su'per-po-si'shon).  Placing  one  thing  above  another,  as  the 
use  of  a  lighter  Order  for  the  second  story  of  a  building,  placed  above  a 
heavier  Order  used  for  the  first  story.  (See  Figs.  21,  22,  23,  and  24.) 

Support  (sup-port') .     A  prop. 

Swell  (swel).  Belly;  referring  to  the  slight  increase  in  the  size  of  the  column 
between  the  base  and  the  neck.  (See  Fig.  61.) 

Systyle  (sis'til).  Having  columns  which  stand  two  diameters  apart,  or  three 
diameters  on  centers.  (See  Fig.  19.) 


Tabular ium  (tab-u-lar'i-um).  An  early  Roman  building  backing  the  Senate, 
and  consisting  of  a  tall  wall  crowned  with  a  colonnade  placed  against  an 
arcade  in  the  characteristic  Roman  fashion.  The  first  example  of  this 
usage  of  which  we  know.  It  dates  from  about  78  B.  C. 

Tffinia  (te'ni-a).  A  fillet  surmounting  the  Doric  architrave.  (See  Fig.  7  and 
Plate  IX.) 

Taper  (ta'per).  The  gradual  diminution  or  reduction  in  size  of  an  object — 
especially  a  column — towards  its  end  or  top.  (See  Fig.  87.) 

Tetrastyle  (tet'ra-stil).  Having  or  consisting  of  four  columns.  (See  Plate 
XXXIII.) 

Theseum  (the-se'um).  A  temple  to  the  Athenian  hero,  Theseus;  especially  a 
certain  Doric  temple  built  in  Athens  which  is  one  of  the  three  most  per- 
fect surviving  Greek  temples.  (See  Fig.  *l.) 


398 


GLOSSARY  273 

Tholos  (tho'los)  or  Tholus  (tho'lus).  A  circular  building;  a  domed  structure; 
e.  g.,  the  Tholos  at  Epidauros.  (See  Fig.  78  and  Plate  L.) 

Titus  (tl'tus).  Roman  emperor,  79-81  A.  D.  He  captured  Jerusalem  (70  A.  D.) 
during  the  reign  of  his  father  Vespasian.  The  Arch  of  Titus  in  Rome 
was  erected  in  commemoration  of  this  event.  (See  Fig.  134.) 

Tivoli  (tev'o-le).  A  town  near  Rome  celebrated  for  its  circular  temple  of  Ves- 
ta, showing  an  excellent  example  of  the  Roman  Corinthian  Order.  (See 
Fig.  130.) 

Torus  (to'rus).  The  large,  convex  moulding  of  semicircular  profile  used  gen- 
erally as  the  lowest  member,  and  just  above  the  plinth — when  it  is  em- 
ployed— of  the  column  base.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Trajan  (tra'jan).  Roman  emperor,  98-117  A.  D.  Famous  for  his  wars 
against  the  Dacians  and  Parthians.  Triumphal  arches  in  his  honor  were 
erected  at  Rome  and  Ancona.  (See  Fig.  137.) 

Triglyph  (trl'glif).  A  decorative  ornament  occurring  at  regular  intervals  in 
the  frieze  of  the  Greek  Doric  Order,  and  bearing  perpendicular  incisions 
or  channels  upon  its  surface.  (See  Fig.  7.) 

Tumble-home  (tum'bl-hom).  Strictly,  a  nautical  term  referring  to  the  taper- 
ing or  sloping  in  of  the  sides  of  a  vessel  as  they  near  the  top  of  the  boat; 
used  in  this  connection  as  referring  to  a  similar  sloping-in  of  a  column  or 
building  toward  its  top.  (See  Figs.  35  and  36.) 

Tuscan  (tus'kan).  The  simplest  of  the  five  Roman  Orders  of  architecture, 
supposedly  derived  by  the  Romans  from  a  combination  of  the  Greek 
Doric  with  the  local  Etruscan  columnar  architecture.  (See  Fig.  6.) 

Tympanum  (tim'pa-num).     The  triangular  area  surrounded  by  the  cornices 

of  a  pediment.     (See  Fig.  20.) 

Type  (tip).  The  original  model  or  kind  which  becomes  the  subject  of  copy; 
the  mark  or  impression  of  something  bearing  a  definite  and  unmistak- 
able stamp;  belonging  to  a  special  sort  or  family. 

u 

Undercut  (un-der-kuf).  In  mouldings,  having  a  section  which  overhangs, 
giving  a  deep  hollow  or  dark  shadow  beneath.  (See  M,  Fig.  46.) 


Vanishing  point  (van'ish-ing  point).     An  imaginary  point  towards  which  the 

horizontal  lines  of  a  building  appear  to  converge. 
Vault  (vault).     An  arching  structure  of  masonry,  brick,  or  woodwork,  forming 

a  canopy,  cover,  or  ceiling.     (See  Figs.  26  and  27.) 
Vertical  (ver'ti-kal).     Being  in  a  position  or  direction  perpendicular  to  the 

horizon ;  upright ;  plumb. 
Vespasian  (ves-pazh'yan).     A  Roman  emperor,  A.  D.  70-79,  during  whose 

reign  was  commenced  the  Colosseum  at  Rome. 
Vesta  (ves'ta).     The  goddess  of  the  vestal  virgins.     One  Roman  temple  of 

this  name  exists  at  Tivoli.     It  still  contains  windows  of  the  true  Roman 

period.     (See  Fig.  130.) 
Vestibule  (ves/ti-bul).     An  entrance  or  passage  hall  next  the  outer  door  of  a 


399 


274  GLOSSAKY 

house,  from  which  the  doors  open  into  the  various  inner  rooms.     A 

porch,  lobby,  hall. 
Vignola  (ve-nyo'la),  Giacomo  Barozzi.     A  Renaissance  architect  and  student 

of  architecture.     Author  of  the  well-known  work  on  the  Renaissance 

Orders  of  Architecture.     He  succeeded  Michelangelo  as  the  architect  of 

St.  Peter's,  Rome. 
Vitruvius    Pollio  (vi-troo'vi-us  pol'i-6).     A   Roman   engineer  and   writer  on 

architecture. 
Volutes  (vo'luts).     A  kind  of  spiral  scroll  forming  the  principal  ornament  of 

the  Ionic  and  a  subordinate  part  of  the  Composite  capitals.     (See  Fig. 

61.) 

Votive  (vo'tiv).     Devoted  to  some  object  or  deity;  generally  in  commemora- 
tion of  a  certain  event  or  in  consequence  of  a  vow. 
Voussoir  (voos-swar').     One  of  the  wedgelike  stones  forming  an  arch.     (See 

Fig.  98.) 

w 

Wainscot  (wan'skot).     The  wooden  lining  of  walls,  generally  in  panels  and 

along  the  lower  portion  only  of  their  height. 
Wave  ornament  (wav  or'na-ment).     A  Greek   decorative   form   of   flowing 

curves,  regularly  repeated;  generally  used  in  a  band  or  frieze.     (See  M, 

Plate  XL.) 
Winds,  Tower  of  the.      A  horologium  or  water  clock  erected  at  Athens  by 

Andronicus  Cyrrhestes  in  the  1st  Century  B.  C.       It  was  octagonal  in 

plan,  and  very  ornate,  being  surmounted  by  a  bronze  triton  serving  as  a 

weather-vane.     (See  Figs.  72  and  74.) 

z 

Zeus  (zus).  Supreme  god  of  mythology,  to  whom  many  temples  were  erected, 
the  principal  one  being  that  at  Olympia.  Identified  with  the  Roman 
Jupiter. 


400 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

NOTE— The  titles  marked  with  asterisks  are  considered  the  most  Im- 
portant, those  with  a  double  asterisk  being  especially  recommended. 

**Buhlmann:  Die  Architektur  des  Classischen  Alterthums  und  der  Renais- 
sance. (The  Architecture  of  the  Classic  Ages  and  of  the  Renaissance.) 
Stuttgart,  1872-88.  3  volumes  in  one.  75  folding  plates.  A  valuable 
and  well-drawn  collection  of  the  best  Classic  and  Renaissance  buildings. 

*Chambers,  Sir  W. :  Decorative  Part  of  Civil  Architecture.  London,  2  vol- 
umes, plates.  Lockwood,  21  shillings.  1883.  A  work  on  the  Orders 
with  some  excellent  ideas  and  unusual  illustrations. 

*Gibbs,  J. :  Rules  for  Drawing  the  Several  Parts  of  Architecture.  London. 
1753.  Folding  plates.  The  best  of  the  old  English  "Builders'  Hand- 
books," from  which  the  colonial  carpenters  derived  their  details. 

Laureys:  Kursus  der  Classischen  Baukunst.  (Course  in  Classic  Architecture.) 
Berlin,  1889.  70  plates.  An  elaborate  method  of  drawing  the  Orders  in 
all  their  parts;  practically  all  included  (in  a  simple  form)  in  Part  I  of 
Study  of  the  Orders  (American  School  of  Correspondence). 

**Mauch:  Die  Architektonischen  Ordnungen  der  Griechen  und  Romer.  (The 
Architectural  Orders  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.)  Berlin,  1875.  2 
parts  in  one  volume.  102  folding  plates.  A  collection  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  antique  Greek  and  Roman  plates  from  various  buildings. 

*Normand,  C.  P.  J. :  Parallel  of  the  Orders  of  Architecture.  London,  1829. 
64  folding  plates.  An  analysis  of  the  different  Orders,  and  the  various 
methods  of  proportioning  them ;  of  value  and  interest  to  the  worker  and 
student. 

Spiers:   The  Orders  of  Architecture.     London,  1890.     20  folding  plates. 

*Vignola:  The  Five  Orders  of  Architecture;  to  which  is  added  the  Greek  Or- 
ders. Boston.  82  plates.  Bates  &  Guild,  $5.  With  the  original  French 
plates  and  with  English  translation  of  descriptive  matter. 

American  Vignola.  Edited  by  Prof.  W.  R.  Ware.  New  York.  American 
Architect,  1902.  $2.00.  A  recent  and  different  work,  with  redrawn 
plates  and  many  other  valuable  illustrations  of  standard  architectural 
details. 


**Anderson  and  Spiers:  Architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome.  New  York: 
Chas.  Scribner's  Sons.  $7.50  net.  A  modern  and  complete  English  work 
giving,  in  attractive  form,  descriptions  and  illustrations  of  Greek  and 
Roman  architecture, 


403 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  277 

British  Museum:  Synopsis  of  the  Contents  of  the  British  Museum.  Depart- 
ment of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities;  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon, 
London,  1880.  1886. 

Canina:  V Architettura  Antica.  (Ancient  Architecture.)  Rome.  1830-44. 
10  volumes.  An  old  work  in  Italian,  with  large  engravings  of  old  Roman 
work  somewhat  carelessly  and  incorrectly  restored. 

*Choisy:    Histoire  de  I' Architecture.     (History  of  Architecture.)     Paris.     An 

exhaustive  history  in  French  with  hard,  rather  uninteresting  illustrations- 

/ 
*Durand:   Recueil  et  Parallcle  des  Edifices  de  Tout  Genre,  Anciens  et  Modernes. 

(Review  and  Parallel  of  Buildings  of  Every  Class,  Ancient  and  Modern.) 
Paris,  1800.  90  folding  plates.  A  portfolio  of  carefully  drawn  and  elab- 
orate French  School  renderings. 

Fergusson:  History  of  Architecture.  London,  1865.  2  volumes,  illustrated. 
$7.50.  An  old-fashioned  work  still  considered  an  authority,  with  wood 
engravings,  and  statements  which  often  do  not  agree  with  modern  and 
more  recent  researches. 

**Gaudet:  Theorie  de  V Architecture.  (Theory  of  Architecture.)  Paris.  3 
volumes.  The  most  up-to-date  and  exhaustive  work  on  the  subject, 
fully  illustrated.  By  a  professor  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts.  It  re- 
quires a  rather  good  command  of  modern  conversational  French  to  read 
it  with  ease. 

Gailhabaud:  Monuments  Anciens  et  Modernes.  (Ancient  and  Modern  Monu- 
ments.) A  collection  forming  a  history  of  architecture.  Paris,  1855.  4 
volumes,  399  plates.  An  elaborate  and  somewhat  pedantic  French  work. 

*Longfellow:  Encyclopedia  of  Architecture  in  Greece,  Italy,  and  France.  New 
York.  An  interesting  work,  though  neither  complete  nor  balanced  in 
scope. 

*Luebke:  History  of  Art.  Edited  by  Russell  Sturgis.  New  York.  A  well- 
considered  volume. 

Reber:  History  of  Ancient  Art.  Translated  by  J.  T.  Clarke,  New  York,  1882. 
Illustrated.  Somewhat  archseologic  in  intention. 

Reynaud:  Traite  d'  Architecture.  (Treatise  on  Architecture.)  Paris.  Text 
2  volumes;  plates,  2  volumes.  Another  well-illustrated  French  work. 

Schliemann:  Mycence.  Text.  Illustrations  of  very  early  Greek  work.( 
(Cyclopean.) 

Simpson,  F.  M. :  History  of  Architectural  Development.  London,  1905.  An 
essay-like  volume. 

Sturgis:  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building.  3  volumes.  New  York: 
The  Macmillan  Co.  $18.  A  modern  dictionary  in  English,  with  many 
illustrations. 

Uhde:  Architectural  Forms  of  Classic  Ages      New  York.     $18. 

*Viollet-le-Duc:  Discourses  on  Architecture.  Boston.  1875.  2  volumes; 
plates.  A  translation  of  a  book  by  a  French  restorer  and  authority 


403 


278  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 

**Academie  de  la  France  a  Rome:  Restaurations  des  Monuments  Antiques. 
(Restorations  of  Ancient  Monuments.)  Paris.  1877-90.  Folding 
plates;  viz. :  Temple  of  Jupiter,  Pan-Hellenic,  at  ^Egina.  By  C.  Gamier. 
(Shows  Greek  coloring.)  The  Temples  of  Paestum.  Restoration  by  H. 
Labrouste.  Beautifully  rendered  and  colored  French  drawings. 

*Adler:  Die  Baudenkmaler  von  Olympia.  (Remains  of  Olympia.)  Berlin, 
1892.  Text,  one  volume ;  atlas,  72  plates. 

Beule:  L' Aero-pole  d' Athenes.  (The  Acropolis  of  Athens.)  Paris,  1853, 
1854.  Text;  plans. 

Boetticher,  A.:  Die  Akropolis  von  Athen.  (The  Acropolis  of  Athens).  Ber- 
lin, 1888. 

A.:  Olympia;  das  Fest  und  seine  Statte.  (Olympia;  the  Festival 
and  its  Location.)  Berlin,  1883.  Illustrations;  plates. 

Carl,  G.  W. :  Ueber  den  Parthenon  zu  Athen.  (Concerning  the 
Parthenon  at  Athens.)  Zeitschrift  fur  Bauwesen,  Volumes  2  and  3, 
colored  illustrations.  1852,  1853. 

"  C.:   Die   Tektonik  der   Hellenen.     (The  Technique  of  the  Helle- 

nes).    Berlin,  1874.     Text,  2  volumes  in  one ;  atlas,  45  folding  plates 

Brunn:  Die  Bildwerke  des  Parthenon.  (The  Pictures  of  the  Parthenon.) 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences.  Volume  2, 
pp.  3-50.  1874. 

Burrow:  The  Elgin  Marbles,  with  an  abridged  historical  and  topographical 
account  of  Athens.  Volume  1.  London,  1817. 

Butler,  H.  C. :  Architecture  and  Other  Arts.  New  York.  Century  Co.,  1903. 
(Part  II  of  the  publications  of  an  American  archaeological  expedition  to 
Syria  in  1899-1900.)  Folding  plates. 

*Chipiez :  Histoire  Critique  des  Origines  et  de  la  Formation  des  Ordres  Grecs. 
(Critical  History  of  the  Origin  and  Formation  of  the  Greek  Orders.) 
Paris.  Illustrated.  A  standard  but  rather  archaeological  French  work. 

*Cockerell:  Temples  ....  at  Egina  .  .  .  .  and  Bassos,  etc.  London,  1860. 
Plates. 

Collignon:  Manual  of  Greek  Archaeology.  Translated  by  J.  H.  Wright. 
London.  1886.  Illustrated.  (The  Fine  Arts  Library.)  Cassell.  5 
shillings. 

*Durm:  Die  Baukunst  der  Griechen.  (The  Architecture  of  the  Greeks.) 
Darmstadt,  1881.  Plates.  (Handbuch  der  Architektur.  Part  2,  Vol- 
ume 1.)  Many  good  illustrations. 

Duruy:  Die  Akropolis  von  Athen.  (The  Acropolis  of  Athens.)  Munich, 
1895. 

Evans  and  Fyfe:  Mindan  Palace  of  Knossos,  Crete.  (Journal,  Royai  Insti- 
tute British  Architects.)  1903. 

Faure:  Le  Canon  des  Proportions  en  Architecture  Grecque.  (The  Law  of  Pro- 
portions in  Greek  Architecture.)  The  Parthenon,  or  Temple  of  Minerva, 
at  Athens.  Paris,  1895. 

Heuzey  and  Daumet:  Mission  Archaeologique  de  la  Macedoine.  (Archaeologi- 
cal Mission  of  Macedonia.)  Paris,  1876.  Folding  plates. 


404 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  279 

Hittorff  and  Zanth:  Architecture  Antique  de  la  Sidle.  (Ancient  Architecture 
of  Sicily.)  Paris.  (1827?)  48  folding  plates. 

Inwood:   Erechtheion.     (The  Erechtheum.)     London,  1831.     Folding  plates. 

Koldewey  and  Puchstein:  Die  Griechischen  Tern-pel  in  Unteritalien  und  Sid- 
lien.  (The  Greek  Temples  in  Lower  Italy  and  Sicily.)  Shows  present 
condition  of  temples. 

**Laloux:  L' Architecture  Grecque.  (Greek  Architecture.)  Paris,  1888.  Il- 
lustrated. An  exceptional  collection  of  Classic  details  and  restorations, 
all  beautifully  drawn  and  reproduced. 

**Laloux  and  Monceaux:  Restauration  d' Olympic.  (Restoration  of  Olym- 
pia.)  Paris,  1889.  Folding  plates.  Another  work  of  similar  character 
to  the  preceding,  and  of  almost  equal  value. 

Labrouste:  See  Academic. 

Le  Bas:  Voyage  Archaeologique  en  Grece  et  en  Asie  Mineure  (1842-44).  (Ar- 
chaeological Travels  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.)  Paris,  1888.  Plates 
Bibliotheque  des  Monuments  Figures  Grecs  et  Romains.  (Bibliography 
of  the  Greek  and  Roman  Sculptured  Monuments.) 

Magne:  Le  Parthenon.     (The  Parthenon.)     Paris,  1895. 

Michaells:  Der  Parthenon.  (The  Parthenon.)  Leipzig,  1870.  Text,  1  vol- 
ume ;  folding  plates,  1  volume. 

Middleton:  Plans  and  Drawings  of  Athenian  Buildings.  Edited  by  E.  A. 
Gardner.  London,  1900.  (Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Hellenic 
Studies.)  Contains  plates  of  Acropolis  and  Erechtheum. 

Murray,  A.  S. :  Handbook  of  Greek  Archaeology.  London,  1892.  Illustrated 
with  plates. 

Newton  and  Pullan:  A  History  of  Discoveries  at  Halicarnassus,  Cnidus,  and 
Branchidce.  London,  1862.  Text,  2  volumes;  atlas,  1  volume;  folding 
plates. 

Omont  (Editor):  Athenes  au  XVIIe  Siecle.  (Athens  in  the  17th  Century.) 
Designs  of  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon.  Paris,  1898. 

Pennethorne:  The  Geometry  and  Optics  of  Ancient  Architecture.  London, 
1878.  Folding  plates. 

Penrose :  An  Investigation  of  the  Principles  of  Athenian  Architecture.  London, 
1851.  Plates.  (Society  of  Dilettanti.) 

Perrot  and  Chipiez:  Histoire  de  I'  Art  dans  V  Antiquite.  (History  of  Ancient 
Art.)  Translation. 

Serradifalco :  Le  Antichita  della  Sicilia.  (The  Architecture  of  Sicily.)  Pa- 
lermo, 1834-42.  5  volumes.  Folding  plates.  (Show  Greek  coloring.) 

Society   of   Dilettanti:  Antiquities   of   Ionia.     London,    1797.     4    volumes. 

Folding  plates. 

Unedited  Antiquities  of  Attica  ....  Eleusis,    Rhamnus,    Sunium,  and 

Thoricus.     London,  1817.     78  plates. 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Hellenic  Studies :  Publications. 

**Stuart  and  Revett:  Antiquities  of  Athens.  London,  1762-1830.  5  vol- 
umes, folding  plates.  An  old,  standard  work,  with  many  good  and  val- 
uable plates. 


405 


280  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Texier:  Asie  Mineure.  (Asia  Minor.)  Paris,  1839.  3  volumes,  241  folding 
plates. 

Trowbridge:  The  Acropolis  of  Athens,  1887.  The  results  of  the  latest  ex- 
plorations of  the  archseological  schools  of  Athens.  New  York,  1887. 

**Watt,  J.  C. :   Examples  of  Greek  and  Pompeiian  Decoration. 

Wilkins:   Antiquities  of  Magna  Grcecia. 

GREEK  POLYCHROME 

Fenger:   Dorische  Polychromie.     (Doric  Polycrome.)     Berlin,  1886. 

Fyfe:  Decorations  at  Knossos.  In  Journal,  Royal  Institute  British  Archi- 
tects, volume  10,  page  107,  plates  1-2. 

Hittorff:  Restitution  du  Temple  d'  Empedocle  b  Selinonte;  ou  L' Architecture 
Polychrome  chez  les  Grecs.  (Restoration  of  the  Temple  of  Empedoclcs 
at  Sclinus;  or  the  Polychrome  Architecture  of  the  Greeks.)  Paris,  1851. 
Text,  1  volume ;  atlas,  25  plates. 

*Jones,  Owen. :  Grammar  of  Ornament.  London,  1856.  3  volumes,  folding 
plates.  A  well-known  work  of  colored  ornament  in  different  styles  and 
periods. 

Lau:   Greek  Vases. 

Reinach:    Voyage  Archceologique.     (Archaeological  Travels.) 

Zahn:   Ornamente.     (Ornament.)     Plates. 

BOOKS  ON  ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  RELATING  TO 
THE  ORDERS 

*Academie  de  la  France  a  Rome:  La  Basilique  Ulpienne.  (The  Ulpian  Ba- 
silica.) La  Colonne  Trajanne  (The  Column  of  Trajan.)  Rome.  Le 
Temple  de  Marc- Aurele.  (The  Temple  of  Marcus  Aurelius.)  Le  Temple 
de  Vesta.  (The  Temple  of  Vesta.)  Thermes  de  Diocletian.  (Thermae,  or 
Baths,  of  Diocletian.) 

Adam:  Ruins  of  the  Palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalatro.  (London,  1764.) 
Folding  plates. 

*Choisy:  L' Art  de  Batir  chez  les  Romains.  (The  Art  of  Building  among  the 
Romans.)  Paris,  1873.  Folding  plates. 

Desgodetz:  Les  Edifices  Antiques  de  Rome.  (The  Ancient  Buildings  of 
Rome.)  Rome,  1822,  1843.  4  volumes,  220  folding  plates. 

*Durm:  Die  Baukunst  der  Romer.  (The  Architecture  of  the  Romans.) 
Darmstadt,  1885.  Plates.  (Handbuch  der  Architektur,  Part  2,  volume 
2.) 

**d'Espouy:   Fragments  Antiques.     (Ancient  Fragments.) 

Lanciani:  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discoveries.     Boston,  1888. 

Middleton,  J.  H.:  The  Remains  of  Ancient  Rome.  London,  1892.  2  volumes, 
illustrated. 

**Palladio:  Oeuvres  Completes.  (Complete  Works.)  Paris,  1842.  2  vol- 
umes, folding  plates.  The  best  of  the  Renaissance  works  upon  the  Clas- 
sic Orders, 


406 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  281 

*Piranese:  (Works  containing  brilliant  engravings  of  ancient  architecture.) 
Paris,  1835-39.  29  volumes  (in  27),  folding  plates. 

*Taylor  and  Cresy:  The  Architectural  Antiquities  of  Rome  Measured  and  De- 
lineated. London,  1821-22.  2  volumes,  129  folding  plates. 

Vitruvius  Pollio:  Civil  Architecture.  London,  1812.  Plates.  The  only 
Roman  writer  on  architectural  subjects  whose  works  have  been  pre- 
served. The  illustrations  all  date  from  the  Renaissance  only.  The 
great  authority  on  the  Orders,  but  of  more  historical  than  practical  value. 

Wood:    The  Ruins  of  Palmyra  and  Baalbec.     London,  1827.   Folding  plates 


407 


INDEX 


I  1ST 


The  page  numbers  re /erred  to   in   the  Index  will  be  found  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pay  ex 


Page 

Page 

Abacus 

46,  189 

Capital 

Acropolis 

178 

Greek  Doric 

158,  183 

Akroter 

198 

Ionic 

55 

Analysis  of  Greek  Order 

167 

decorated  Ionic 

216 

Arcade 

18 

plain  Ionic 

212 

Arch 

17,  18 

roll  of 

50 

and  lintel  combined 

281 

Caryatid  Order 

167,  245 

Roman 

279 

Catacombs  of  Beni-Hassan 

175 

of  Titus 

345 

Cathetus 

46 

triumphal,  Roman 

351 

Cavetto  mouldings 

19 

Architecture 

13 

Channels 

character  of  Roman 

288 

Corinthian  column 

83 

Classical 

13,  154 

Ionic  column 

55 

Greek 

149,  155 

Choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates 

236 

origin  of  Roman 

279 

Classic  architecture 

13,  154 

refinement  of  Greek          .  • 

157 

Colonnade 

87 

religious  significance  of 

149 

Colosseum 

308 

Architrave 

167 

Column 

16,  167 

Corinthian 

73 

architrave  of 

17 

Greek  Do/ic 

190 

development  of  Greek 

153 

Tuscan 

27 

diameter  of 

174 

Archivolt 

18,  83 

height  of 

175 

Arris 

28 

shaft  of 

16 

Astragal 

50,  193 

Column  spacing 

91 

Attic  base 

207 

coupled 

91 

Baguette 

32 

pycnostyle 

91 

Band  ornament 

198 

systyle 

91 

Bases 

17 

enstyle 

91 

Ionic 

56 

diastyle 

91 

Ionic  and  Attic 

207 

aroeostyle 

91 

Basilica,  plan  of 

288 

Composite  capital 

84 

Bead 

201 

Composite  Order                        20,  84, 

293,  345 

Eeakmoulding 

194 

Corinthian  architrave 

73 

Builuir.rs,  clcsi^ninrj  of 

13 

Corinthian  campanile,  Plate  XXVI 

109 

Capital 

17 

Corinthian  capital 

67 

Composite 

84 

bell  of 

73 

Corinthian 

67,  232 

caulicoli 

68 

Doric 

31 

distinguished  from  otheis 

231 

Note.— For  page  numbers  see  foot  of  pajes. 


411 


INDEX 


Page 

Corinthian  capital 
examples  of 

choragic  monument  of  Lysi- 

crates  at  Athens  234 

Philippeion  at  Olympia  234 

temple  of  Apollo  at  Bassae  233 
temple  of  Apol'o  Didymaeus 

at  Miletus  234 

Tholos  at  Epidauros  234 

Tower  of  the  Winds  234 

invention  of  232 

rosette  67 

rule  for  making  233 

Corinthian  channels  83 

Corinthian  circular  temple,  ' 

Plate  XXXI  129 

Corinthian  columns,  Plate  XLVIII  247 

Corinthian  cornice  74 
Corinthian  details,  Plates 

LIII.  LIV  333.  338 

Corinthian  entablature  Plate  XVIII  77 

Corinthian  entrance,  Plate  XXXIV  141 

Corinthian  Order  20,  67,  167,  231 

according  to  Palladio,  Plate 

XXI  89 

general  type  of  245 

Plates  XX,  XLVH  85.  243 
Corinthian  pedestal  and  impost, 

Plate  XIX  81 

Corinthian  pilaster  83,  273 
Corinthian  Temples  of  Jupiter  Olympus 

and  of  Saturn  Plate  LI1  325 

Cornice  17.  167 

Corinthian  74 

Doric  35 

Greek  Doric  192 

Ionic  56 

Tuscan  27 

Corona  35,  192 

moulding  1 94 

Cove  moulding  19,194 

Cyma  moulding  19,  194 

Cyma — reversa  32 

Cymatium  40,  61 

Decoration  of  Greek  mouldings  1 98 

Denticular  Order  28 

Dentils  35 

Designing  of  buildings  1 3 

Details  of  Composite  Order,  Plate  LVI        350 

Note.— For  page  numbers  see  foot  of  pages. 


Page 
Details  of  Composite  Order,  Plate  LVI 

of  Corinthian  capitals  ( 1 )    ( 2)         \ 

(3)      XV,  XVI,  XVII  69.  71,  75 

of  denticular  Doric  entablature, 

Plate  IV  33 

of  Erechtheum  Plate  XLV  226 

of  Ionic  capital,  Plate  X  53 

of  Ionic  entablature,  Plate  XI  57 

of  Ionic  pedestal  and  impost, 

Plate  XII  59 

of  main  doorway.  Pantheon, 

Plate  LVIII  367 

of  monument  of  Lysicrates, 

Plate  XLIX  231 

of  mutular  Doric  entablature, 

Plate  V  37 

of  temple  of  Diana  Propylaea, 

Plate  XXXVI  169 

showing  contemporaneous  use  of 
Doric  and  Corinthian  Orders, 
Plate  L  265 

Diameter  of  Roman  column  174 

Diana  Propylsea,  temple  of  150 

Ditriglyphic  91 

Doorways,  Roman  354 

Doric  chapel,  Plate  XXIX  121 

Doric  colonnaded  gallery,  Plate  XXV          105 
Doric  column,  Plate  III  29 

Doric  entablature,  origin  of  183 

Doric  gallery  with  arches,  Plate  XXIV        101 
Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  columns, 

Plate  LVII  361 

Doric  and  Ionic  columns  from  Parthenon 

and  Erechtheum,  Plate  XXXVII  179 

Doric  Order  20,  28,  167 

according  to  Palladio,  Plate  VIII  47 

denticular  28 

derivation  of  181 

mutular  23 

Plates  VII,  XXXVIII  43,  187 

Doric  pavilion.  Plate  XXXII  133 

Doric  pedestal  and  impost,  Plate  VI  41 

Doric  pilasters  267 

Echinus  158.  189.  194 

Egg-and-dart  201 

Engaged  columns  100 

Entablature  17,  20,  167,  190 

Entasis  of   column    17,  168,  178,  204   255,  359 

Erechtheum  223 


412 


INDEX 


Erechtheum 

doorway  of 
Facades 
Fascia 

Fillet  moulding 
Flutings 

Ionic  and  Corinthian 

origin  of 
Forum  of  Nerva 
Fret  ornament 
Frieze 

Doric 

Greek  Doric 

mutular 

Tuscan 

Gateways,  Roman 
Greek  architecture,  superiority  of 
Greek  buildings,  stone  character  of 
Greek  Doric  capital 
Greek  Doric  Order 

architrave 

change  in  proportions 

cornice 

entablature 

frieze 

proportions  of 

stylobate 

type  form  of 
Greek  Ionic  examples 

Temple  of  Diana 

Mausoleum  of  HalicarnasKiis 

Propylsea 

Erechtheum  at  Athens 
Greek  Ionic  Order 

description  of 

flutings 

general  types  of 
at  Athens 
in  Asia  Minor 
at  Phigalia 

individual  type  of  in  temple  of 

Minerva  Polias 
Greek  mouldings 
Greek  Orders 

Corinthian 

Doric 

Ionic 

Greek  and  Roman  Orders  compared 
Greek  and  Roman  Doric  Orders 
compared 


Note.  —  FOP  page  numbers  see  foot  of  pages. 


Page 

Page 

Greek  temples 

149 

251 

derivation  of 

150 

99 

Guilloche 

198 

32.  193 

Guttae 

32 

193 

Honeysuckle 

198 

55 

Impost                                                             18 

,  61 

174 

Instruments,  drawing 

13 

168 

Intercolumniation                                       87. 

259 

348 

Corinthian 

234 

108 

ditriglyphic 

259 

17.  167 

Doric 

259 

32 

Ionic 

233 

156.  191 

monotriglyphic 

259 

36 

Roman 

364 

27 

Ionic  arched  doorway.  Plate  XXII 

93 

351 

Ionic  base 

207 

155 

Ionic  capital 

55 

185 

(ornamented),  Plate  XLIII 

217 

158.  189 

(plain),  Plate  XLII 

213 

175 

Ionic  circular  temple,  Plate  XXX 

125 

190 

Ionic  console 

67 

178 

Ionic  details.  Plates  XLVI.  LI             229, 

321 

192 

Ionic  and  Doric  Orders 

190 

characterization  of 

202 

191 

differences  in 

201 

176 

Ionic  entrance,  Plate  XXVIII 

115 

190 

Ionic  Order                                            20,  46, 

167 

186 

according  to  Palladio,  Pl?,t3  XIV 

64 

Plates  XIII.  XLI                              63, 

205 

203 

Ionic  pilasters 

270 

203 

Ionic  temple  with  portico.  Plato 

203 

XXXIII 

137 

203 

Leaf-and-dart 

201 

201 

Lines 

203 

broken 

13 

204 

full,  straight 

13 

horizontal 

13 

228 

in  the  Parthenon 

155 

228 

refinement  of 

155 

228 

Lintel                                                               15,  19 

Listel                                                     24  191, 

193 

228 

Measurement,  unit  of                             1  74, 

294 

193 

Mechanical  drawing 

13 

149 

instruments  for 

13 

167 
167 

Method  of  constructing  Corinthian  and 

167 

Composite  Orders,  Plate  LV 

343 

174 

Metopes                                                39,  185, 

192 

Modillion 

74 

298 

Module 

23 

413 


INDEX 


Page 

Monoliths  172 

Monotriglyphic  88 
Moulding 

astragal  193 

beak  194 

Cavetto  19 

classical  1 9 

binding  1 9 

crowning  1 9 

prone  1 9 

separating  1 9 

supporting  1 9 

corona  1 94 

cove  19,  194 

cyma  J9,  194 

decoration  of  198 

echinus  158.  194 

fascia  193 

fillet  or  listel  193 

Greek  193 

ogee  20,  194 

proportions  of  197 

quarter  round  19 

Roman  357 

scotia  20,  194 

torus  19,  193 

Moulding  ornaments 

akroter  198 

beads  201 

egg-and-dart  201 

Greek  fret  198 

guilloche  198 

honeysuckle  198 

leaf-and-dart  208 

palmette  191 

running  dog  198 

Vitruvian  wave  198 

woven-band  198 

Mutular  Order  28 
Mutular-Doric  Order  according  to 

Vignola.  Plate  IX  51 

Mutules  192 

Ogee  moulding  20,  194 

Ornamented  mouldings,  Plate  XL  199 

Palladio  11,  23 

Palmette  198 

Pantheon.  Rome  332 

Parallel  of  the  Orders,  Plate  I  21 

Parallels  in  wood  and  .stone  182 

Note.— FOP  page  numbers  see  foot  of  pages. 


Page 

Parthenon  150 

lines  in  1 55 

order  of  iyg 

Pedestal  17,  24,  309 

cap  of  17 

die  of  17 

Roman  296 

Pediment  99 

height  of  92 

Roman  353 

Persic  Order  167,  246 

Pier  15,  17 

Pilasters  1 7 
Corinthian  83,  273 

Doric  267 

Ionic  270 

Roman  369 

Pillar  15 

Plates 

I,  Parallel  of  the  Orders  21 

II,  Tuscan  Order  25 

III,  Doric  column  29 

IV,  Details  of  denticular  Doric 
entablature  33 

V,  Details  of  mutular  Doric 
entablature  37 

VI,  Doric  pedestal  and  impost  41 

VII,  Doric  Order  43 

VIII,  Doric  Order  according  to 
Palladio  47 

IX,  Mutular  Doric  Order  according 

to  Vignola  61 

X,  Details  of  Ionic  capital  53 

XI,  Details  of  Ionic  entablature  57 

XII,  Details  of  Ionic  pedestal  and 
impost  59 

XIII,  Ionic  Order  63 
•XIV,  Ionic  Order  according  to 

Palladio  64 

XV,  Details  of  Corinthian  capital 

(1)  63 

XVI,  Details  of  Corinthian  capital 

(ID  71 

XVII,  Details  of  Corinthian  capital 
(III)  75 

XVIII,  Corinthian  entablature  77 

XIX,  Corinthian  pedestal  and  impost    81 

XX,  Corinthian  Order  85 


414 


INDEX 


Page 
Plates 

XXI,  Corinthian  Order  according  to 
Palladio  89 

XXII,  Ionic  arched  doorway  93 

XXIII,  Tuscan  arcade  97 

XXIV,  Doric  gallery  with  arches  101 

XXV,  Doric  colonnaded  gallery  105 

XXVI,  Corinthian  campanile  109 

XXVII,  Tuscan  guardhouse  113 

XXVIII,  Ionic  entrance  115 

XXIX,  Doric  chapel  121 

XXX,  Ionic  circular  temple  125 
'  XXXI,  Corinthian  circular  temple  129 

XXXII,  Doric  pavilion  133 

XXXIII,  Ionic  temple  with  portico  137 

XXXIV,  Corinthian  entrance  141 

XXXV,  Temple  of  Diana  Propylaea  151 

XXXVI,  Details  of  temple  of 

Diana  Propylaea  169 

XXXVII,  Doric  and  Ionic  columns 
from  Parthenon  and  Erechtheum  179 

XXXVIII,  Doric  Order  187 

XXXIX,  Profiles  of  typical 
mouldings  195 

XL,  Ornamented  mouldings  196 

XLI,  Ionic  Order  205 

XLII,  Ionic  capital  (plain)  213 

XLIII,  Ionic  capital  (ornamented)  217 
XLIV,  Portico,  temple  of  Minerva 

Polias  221 

XLV.  Details  of  Erechtheum  226 

XLVI,  Ionic  details  229 

XLVII,  Corinthian  Order  243 

XLVIII,  Corinthian  columns  247 
XLIX,  Details  of  Monument  of 

Lysicrates  261 
L,  Details  showing  contemporaneous 
use  of  Doric  and  Cor.'nthian  Or- 
ders 265 
LJ,  Ionic  details  321 
LII,  Corinthian  Temples  of  Jupiter 

Olympus  and  of  Saturn  325 
LIII,  Corinthian  details  333 
LIV,  Corinthian  details  338 
LV,  Method  of  constructing  Corin- 
thian and  Composite  Orders  343 
LVI.  Details  of  Composite  Order  350 

Note.— For  page  numbers  see  foot  of  pages. 


Page 
Plates 

LVII,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian 

columns  361 
LVIII,  Details  of  main  doorway, 

Pantheon  367 

Plinth  18   79 

Portico  87 

"in  antis"  87 

temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  Plate 

XLIV  221 
Profiles  of  typical  mouldings,  Plate 

XXXIX  195 

Proportions  of  the  Order  16 

Pycnostyle  88 

Quarter  round  mouldings  19 

Refinement  of  Greek  architecture  157 

Reglet  32 

Rol  of  capital  50 

Roman  arch  279 

Roman  architecture  279 

Roman  column,  diameter  of  174 

Roman  Corinthian,  (classic)  323 

Roman  Order  1 1 

parts  of  292 

proportions  of  296 
Roman  Doric  Order 

classic  303 

early  297 
Roman  Ionic  Order 

base  of  316 

capital  of  317 

classic  315 

development  and  use  of  315 

entablature  of  317 

examples  of  319 

Roman  vault  276 

Roof,  inclination  of  158 

Running  dog  194 

Scotia  moulding  20,  195 

Secular  buildings.  Orders  for  284 

Shaft,  height  of  189.  209 

Soffit,  Doric  cornice  35 

Stele  crestings  25? 

String  course  15 

Stylotaate  167.  190 

Superimposed  Orders,  use  of  284 

Superposition  87,  95 


415 


INDEX 


Pago 

Tabularium  305 
Taenia  32 

Temple 

of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  Rome  339 

of  Castor  and  Pollux,  Cora  328 

at  Cora.  Italy  300 

of  Diana  Propylasa,  Plate  XXXV  151 

Greek  149 

Greek  Doric  181 

of  Jupiter  Olympus,  Athens  328 

of  Mars  Ultor,  Rome  330 

of  Minerva,  Assisi  335 

of  Nimes,  France  339 

Roman  285 

of  the  Sun,  Rome  339 

of  Theseus  1 78 

of  Vesta  332 
Theater 

Roman  288 

of  Marcellus  309 
Note  —  For  page  numbers  sso  foct  of  pages. 


Page 

Tholos  at  Epidauros  240 

Torus  moulding  19,  193 

Tower  of  the  Winds  236 
Transition  from  Greek  to  Roman  Order      323 

Triglyphs  32.  191,  300 

Tuscan  arcade,  Plate  XXIII  97 

Tuscan  capital  27 

Tuscan  guardhouse,  Plate  XXVIT  113 

Tuscan  Order  20,  24,  293 

Plate  II  25 

Vaults  17,  18,  279 

Vignola  11,  23.  294 

Corinthian  Order  of  340 

mutular  Roman  Doric  of  311 

Vitruvian  wave  198 

Volute  209 

Voussoirs  18 

Windows,  Roman  356 

Woven-band  IB8 


THE  following  pages  are  taken  from 
the  Bulletin  of  the  American  School 
of  Correspondence,  Chicago. 

Other  courses  offered  are  :  Heating, 
Ventilating  and  Plumbing  ;  Refrigeration  ; 
Civil,  Electrical,  Mechanical,  Stationary. 
Locomotive,  and  Marine  Engineering ; 
Alternating  Current  Work  ;  Telephony  ; 
Telegraphy ;  Sheet  Metal  Pattern  Draft- 
ing ;  Structural  Drafting ;  Textiles,  in- 
cluding Knitting,  the  Manufacture  of  Cot- 
ton and  Woolen  Cloth,  Textile  Chemistry, 
Dyeing,  Finishing,  and  Design  ;  also  Col- 
lege Preparatory,  fitting  students  for  en- 
trance to  engineering  colleges. 

The  Bulletin  of  the  School,  giving 
complete  synopsis  of  the  above  courses, 
may  be  had  on  request. 


ARCHITECTURAL    LETTERING 


EFGH 

I  KLM 

NOQP 
RSTV 
WXYZ 

Fig.  4.     Italian   Renaissance   Alphabet,   according   to   Sebastian    Serlio. 
SPECIMEN  PLATE  FROM  INSTRUCTION  PAPER  ON  ARCHITECTURAL  LETTERING 


420 


DEPARTMENT  OF 

ARCHITECTURE 


COURSES 

COMPLETE  ARCHITECTURE 

ARCHITECTURAL  ENGINEERING 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS' 

ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 
CARPENTERS' 

ARCHITECTURE 

HE  courses  in  Architecture  are  planned  to  cover  the 
actual  problems  arising  in  daily  work.  They  offer 
young  men  in  the  architect's  office  or  in  the  con- 
tractor's employ  an  opportunity  to  obtain  practical 
information  which  ordinarily  could  be  acquired  only 
after  long  apprenticeship.  The  instruction  is  of  im- 
mediate value  to  carpenters,  contractors  and  others  engaged  in  build- 
ing, as  great  stress  is  laid  on  the  practical  as  well  as  the  artistic  side 
of  the  work.  The  courses  offer  experienced  draftsmen  and  practicing 
architects  an  opportunity  to  make  up  deficiencies  in  their  early  pro- 
fessional training.  The  instruction  in  Heating,  Ventilating,  Plumb- 
ing, Gas  Lighting,  Wiring, — Electricity  and  Steam  as  applied  to  power 
and  light, — is  such  as  to  enable  an  architect  to  obtain  an  intelligent 
knowledge  of  subjects  which  are  of  growing  importance  in  the  plan- 
ning of  large  buildings. 

The  instruction  comprises  Mechanical  Drawing,  Descriptive 
Geometry  as  used  in  framing,  Isometric  and  Perspective  Drawing, 
Shades  and  Shadows,  Free-hand  Drawing,  Pen  and  Ink  Eendering, 
and  the  conventional  methods  of  making,  figuring,  lettering  and  ren- 
dering plans,  elevations,  sections  and  details.  The  student  is  taught 
the  theory  of  the  design  of  columns,  beams,  girders  and  trusses. 
Building  Materials,  Building  Construction  and  Details,  including 
framing,  sheet-metal  work,  fireproofing,  wiring,  piping,  heating  and 
ventilating  systems,  Building  Superintendence,  Specifications  and 
Contracts,  Building  Laws  and  Permits,  and  general  office  practice 
are  also  discussed. 

In  connection  with  Architectural  History,  instruction  is  given  in 
History  of  Ornament,  Ornamental  Design,  followed  by  a  careful  study 
of  the  fundamental  principles  of  design  beginning  with  the  Orders. 
These  principles  are  impressed  upon  the  student  by  a  series  of  interest- 
ing problems  in  architectural  design. 


431 


COMPLETE  ARCHITECTURE 

Prepared  for  Draftsmen,  Designers,  Architects,  Architectural  En- 
gineers, Landscape  Architects,  Building  Superintendents,  Quantity  Sur- 
veyors, Clerks  of  Building  Works,  Inspectors,  Contractors  and  Builders, 
Masons,  Plasterers,  Carpenters  and  Joiners,  Heating  and  Ventilating  En- 
gineers, Steam  Fitters,  Salesmen  of  Building  Materials,  Real  Estate 
Agents,  Instructors,  Students  and  others. 


INSTRUCTION   PAPERS   IN  THE  COURSE 


Arithmetic  Tart  I. 

Arithmetic  Part  II. 

Arithmetic  Tart  III. 

Elementary    Algebra    and    Men- 
suration. 

Algebra  Part  I. 
•Algebra  Part  II. 

Geometry. 
•Trigonometry  and  Logarithms. 

Mechanical  Drawing  Part  I. 

Mechanical  Drawing  Part  II. 

Freehand  Drawing. 

Mechanical  Drawing  Part  III. 

Mechanical  Drawing  Part  IV. 

Architectural  Lettering. 

Shades  and  Shadows. 

Perspective  Drawing. 

Architectural  Drawing  Part  I. 

Architectural  Drawing  Part  II. 

Rendering. 

Study  of  the  Orders  Part  I. 

Study  of  the  Orders  Part  II. 

Study  of  the  Orders  Part  III. 

History  of  Architecture. 


Building  Superintendence  Part  I. 

Building  Superintendence  Part  II. 

Strength  of  Materials  Part  I. 

Strength  of  Materials  Part  II. 

Masonry  Construction  Part  I. 

Masonry  Construction  Part  II. 

Carpentry  and  Joinery  Part  I. 

Carpentry  and  Joinery  Part  II. 

Stair   Building. 

Statics. 

Steel  Construction  Part  I. 

Steel  Construction  Part  II. 

Steel  Construction  Part  III. 

Steel  Construction  Part  IV. 

Fireproofing. 

Contracts  and  Specifications. 

Legal    Relations. 

Heating  and  Ventilation  Part  I. 

Heating  and  Ventilation  Part  II. 

Heating  and  Ventilation  Part  III 

Plumbing  Part  I. 

Plumbing  Part  II. 


•Optional. 

All  instruction  papers  are  handsomely  and  substantially  bound  in  ait 
buckram.  They  contain  from  50  to  100  pages  each,  8x10  inches  in  size,  and 
form  a  convenient  and  attractive  reference  library  of  great  practical  value. 


432 


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Fig.  51. 
SPECIMEN  PLATE  FROM  INSTRUCTION  PAPER  ON  ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING. 


423 


PI.ATE  II. 

Typical  Egyptian,  Assyrian  and  Greek  Motives. 
SPECIMEN  PLATE  FROM  INSTRUCTION  PAPER  ON  FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


424 


SYNOPSIS    OF   COURSE 

MATHEMATICS 

ARITHMETIC:  Units;  Numbers;  Notation;  Addition;  Subtraction;  Multiplication;  Di- 
vision; Factoring;  Cancellation;  Fractions;  Decimals;  Symbols  of  Aggregation;  Per- 
centage; Denominate  Numbers;  Tables  of  Linear  and  Square 
Measure;  Tables  of  Weights;  Involution;  Evolution;  Square 
Ro'jt;  Cube  Hoot;  Roots  of  Fractious;  Ratio;  Proportion. 

ELEMENTARY  ALGEBRA:  Use  of  Letters:  Addition;  Sub- 
traction; Multiplication;  Division;  Cancellation:  Equations; 
Transportation;  Finding  Value  of  Unknown  Quantities. 

MENSURATION:  Lines;  Angles;  Polygons;  Circles;  Sectors 
and  Segments.  Measurement  of  Angles;  Triangles;  Rect- 
angles; Trapezoids;  Hexagons;  Circles;  Volumes  and  Sur- 
faces of  Prisms;  Cylinders;  Pyramids;  Cones;  Frustums; 
Sphere.  Practical  Problem:  Measurement  of  Steam  Space  In 
a  Horizontal  Multitubulur  Boiler. 

ALGEBRA 

EXPRESSIONS:  Symbols;  Coefficients  and  Exponents:  Symbols  of  Relation;  Symbols  ot 
Abbreviation;  Positive  and  Negative  Terms;  Monomial:  Binomial;  Trinomial;  Poly- 
nomials; Similar  Terms.  Finding  Numerical  Value  by  Substitution.  Finding  Values 
of  Unknown  Quantities. 

FUNDAMENTAL  PROCESSES:  Addition;  Subtraction;  Use  of  Parenthesis;  Multiplica- 
tion; Division;  Formulae;  Factoring;  Highest  Common,  Factor;  Lowest  Common 
Multiple. 

FRACTIONS:  Fractions  and  Integers;  Reduction  of  Fractions  to  Lowest  Terms;  Reduc- 
tion of  Fractions  to  Entire  or  Mixed  Quantities;  Reduction  of  Mixed  Quantities  to 
Fractions;  Reduction  of  Fractions  to  Lowest  Common  Denominator;  Addition  and  Sub- 
traction of  Fractious;  Multiplication  and  Division  of  Fractions;  Complex  Fractions. 

SIMPLE  EQUATIONS:  Transposition;  Solution  of  Simple  Equations;  Solution  of  Equa- 
tions Containing  Fractions;  Literal  Equations;  Equations  Involving  Decimals;  Equa- 
tions Containing  Two  Unknown  Quantities:  Elimination  by  Addition,  Subtraction, 
Substitution  and  Comparison. 

INVOLUTION  AND  EVOLUTION:  Monomials  and 
Polynomials;  Squares,  Cubes  and  Higher  Powers. 
The  Radical  Sign:  Theory  of  Exponents;  Radicals; 
Reduction  of  Radicals  to  Simplest  Form;  Addition, 
Subtraction,  Multiplication  and  Division  of  Radi- 
cals. Involution  and  Evolution  of  Radicals.  Irra- 
tional Denominators;  Approximate  Values. 

IMAGINARY  QUANTITIES:  Multiplication  and  Division  of  Imaginary  Quantities.  Quad- 
ratic Surds. 

EQUATIONS:  Solution  of  Equations  Containing  Radiccls.  Pure  and  Affected  Quadratic 
Equations;  Simultaneous  Equations  Involving  Quadratics. 

RATIO   AND   PROPORTION:       Alternation;     Inversion;     Composition;     Division. 

PROGRESSION:       Arithmetical  and  Geometrical. 

BINOMIAL  THEOREM:       Formulae;    Positive  Integers;     Finding  Terms  In  an  Expansion. 


GEOMETRY 


DEFINITIONS:       Principles;     Axioms;     Abbreviations.       Angles:     Acute;     Obtuse;     Comple- 
mentary;    Supplementary;     etc.       Parallel   Lines;     Axioms. 

FUNDAMENTAL  THEORZKS:  Plane  Figures;  Polygons:  Equilat- 
eral and  Equiangular.  Quadrilaterals;  Circles;  Measurements  of 
Angles;  Similar  Figures;  Trapezium;  Trapezoid;  Parallelo- 
gram; Rectangle;  Square:  Rhomboid;  Rhombus.  Ratio  and 
Proportion.  Terms:  Alternation;  Inversion;  Composition  and 

Division.       The  Circle:     Theorems;     Area;     Circumference,   etc. 
i 

SIMILAR  POLYGONS:  Definitions.  Theorems.  Areas  of  Miscel- 
laneous Figures;  Equivalent  Polygons:  Rectangles,  Parallelo- 
grams. 

PROBLEMS  OF  CONSTRUCTION:      Twenty-nine  Problems  In  Construction  of  Plane  Figures. 


425 


TRIGONOMETRY  AND  L 

TRIGONOMETRY:        Definitions;      Functions    of    Acute  nt    of    Angles; 

Complementary  Functions.      Theorems  Connecting  th<  *  an  Angle. 

FUNCTIONS:       From   One   Function   of   an    Angle   to   Ftud    u^  Functions 

of    45    degrees.    30    degrees    and    Co    degrees.      Trigouon'ii  i  Any    Angle. 

Positive   and   Negative   Angles;     The   Four   Quadrants.       Funn.,  .grees,    90   de- 

grees.  ISO  degrees  and  270  degrees.     Angles  and  Triangles.  -s>' 

LOGARITHMS:  Nature  and  Use  of  Logarithms;  Logarithms  of 
a  Product,  a  Fraction,  a  Power,  a  Root.  Solutions  of  Arith- 
metical Problems  by  Logarithms. 

TRIANGLES:  Right  Triangles:  Solution  by  Natural  Functions; 
Solutions  by  logarithms;  Areas.  Oblique  Triangles:  Solu- 
tion by  Breaking  up  into  Right  Triangles:  Areas. 

EXERCISES:      Length  of  Belt  over  two  Pulleys;    Stress  in  Rods 

forming  an  Acute  Angle. 

DRAWING 

INSTRUMENTS   AND    MATERIALS:       Drawing    Paper:     Board;     Pencils;     T-Squares;     Tri- 
angles;   Compasses;     Line  Pens;    Scales;     Irregular  Curves;    Lettering  Plates;     Exercises. 
GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING:     Lines;    Angles;    Triangles;    Parallelograms;     Pentagon;    Hexa- 
gon;    Circles;     Measurement    of    Angles.        Prisms; 
Pyramids;     Cylinders;      Cones;     Spheres.        Ellipse; 
Parabola;     Hyperbola;      Twenty-eight    Problems    in 
Geometrical   Drawing. 

PROJECTIONS:  Orthographic:  Plan  and  Elevation; 
Projection  of  Points,  Lines,  Surfaces  and  Solids. 
Third  Plane  of  Projection;  True  Length;  Inter- 
section of  Planes  with  Cones  and  Cylinders;  De- 
velopment of  Prisms,  Cylinders,  Cones,  etc.  De- 
velopment of  Elbow.  Isometric:  Isometric  Axes; 
Cube;  Cylinder;  Directions  of  Rays  of  Light. 
Oblique  Projections:  Shade  Lines;  Co-ordinates. 
Isometric  of  House,  etc. 

WORKING  DRAWINGS:  Lines.  Location  of  Views;  Cross-Sections;  Crosshatching; 
Dimensions;  Finished  Surfaces;  Material;  Conventional  Representations  of  Screw 
Threads.  Bolts  and  Nuts.  Threads  in  Sectional  Pieces;  Broken  Shafts,  Columns, 
etc.  Tables  of  Standard  Screw  Threads,  Bolts  and  Nuts.  Scale  Drawing;  Assembly 
Drawing;  Blue  Printing;  Formulas  for  Solutions  for  Blue-Print  Paper. 
PERSPECTIVE  DRAWING:  Station  Point;  Picture  Plane; 
Ground  Line;  Horizon;  Line  of  Measures;  Axis;  Vertical 
Trace;  Horizontal  Trace;  Bird's-eye  View;  Worm's-eye 
View;  Vanishing  Points.  Projections:  Planes;  Notation. 
Problems  Involving  Perspective  of  Points.  Lines  and  Planes. 
Revolved  Plan;  Lines  of  Measure;  Diagrams;  Revolved  Plan 
and  Elevation;  Systems  of  Lines  and  Planes;  Visual  Ray; 
Perspective  Diagram;  Method  of  Perspective  Plan;  Curves;  c- 
Apparent  Distortion;  Choice  of  Position  of  Station  Point.  v 
Plates.  O 

SHADES  AND  SHADOWS:  Principles  and  Notation;  Shadows  of  _  I 
Points.  Lines  and  Planes.  Co-ordinate  Planes;  Lines  on 
More  Than  One  Surface.  Choosing  Ground  Line  Problems: 
Shadows  of  Prism;  Pedestal;  Chimney  on  Roof;  Rail  on 
Steps;  Cone:  Cylinder.  Auxiliary  Planes;  Shadow  of 
Spherical  Hollow;  Shadow  of  Scotia.  Planes  of  Light; 
Shadow  of  a  Sphere;  Shadow  on  Pediment  Moulding.  Short  Methods:  Shadows  of 
Points;  Lines  Parallel  and  Perpendicular  to  Co-ordinate  Planes.  Shadows  on  Inclined 
Planes;  on  Planes  Parallel  and  Perpendicular  to  Co-ordinate  Planes.  Shade  and 
Shadow  of  Cylinder;  of  Line  Moulding;  on  Intrados  of  Circular  Arch;  of  Spherical 
Hollow  and  Niche;  of  Sphere;  of  Torus. 

RENDERING:  Pen  and  Ink:  Materials  Used,  Examples  Showing 
Common  Faults,  Values,  Lighting,  Rendering  by  Shadows  only. 
Accent,  Pencil  Work,  Suggestions  and  Cautions,  Examples  of 
Drawings  with  Criticisms. 

WASH  DRAWINGS:  Inking  the  Drawing;  Preparing  the  Tint; 
Handling  the  Brush;  Laying  on  the  Washes;  Tinting  Eleva- 
tions, Sections  and  Plans;  Graded  Tints;  Distinction  between 
different  Planes;  French  Method. 

WATER-COLOR  HINTS  FOR  DRAFTSMEN:  List  of  Colors; 
Manipulation;  Brushes  and  Paper;  Combinations  of  Color; 
Primary,  Secondary  and  Complementary  Colors;  Water-color 
Rendering;  Water-color  Sketching. 

FREE  HAND  DRAWING:  Paper;  Pencils;  Drawing  Board. 
Difference  between  a  Drawing  and  a  Photograph.  Lines  and 
Surfaces.  Flat  Ornament:  Anthemia;  Frets;  Mosaics; 
Stained  Glass;  All  Over  Patterns.  Light  and  Shade:  Value 
Scale;  Form  Drawing;  Point  of  View;  Value  Drawing.  Gco- 
Working  Drawings.  metric  Solids.  Carved  Ornament:  Rosettes;  Greek,  Roman 

and  Byzantine  Acanthus;  Ionic;  Corinthian  and  Gothic  Capitals;  Renaissance  Pilaster. 
ARCHITECTURAL  LETTERING:  Office  Lettering;  Purpose;  Relative  Sizes  and  Shapes 
of  Letters  for  Titles;  Forms  and  Proportions  of  Various  Alphabets.  Skeleton  Letters. 
Composition  and  Spacing:  Title  Page;  Lettering  IM-ms  and  Working  Drawings.  In- 
scription Lettering.  Letters  for  Stone;  Shadows;  Cast  Letters;  Raised  Letters; 
Examples  of  Lettering;  Gothic;  Roman.  Examination  Plates. 


.ilCHITECTURE 


Ancient  Architecture;  Egyptian;  Assyrian;  Grecian: 
•n  Orders.  Greek  Tombs  and  Theatres;  The  Acropolis; 
•jiics;  Theatres;  Tombs;  Triumphal  Arches;  Medieval  Archi- 
tecture-: Romanesque;  Gothic;  English  Gothic;  Early  French 
Styles;  Renaissance;  Italian;  French;  Spanish;  German; 
English.  Classic.  European  Architecture.  American  Ar- 
chitecture: Colonial;  Residences;  Public  Buildings;  Churches; 
Commercial  Architecture. 

STUDY  OF  THE  ORDERS:  The  Five  Orders:  Tuscan;  Doric; 
Ionic;  Corinthian;  Composite:  Character;  Proportions; 
Uses;  Typical  Examples;  Parallel  of  the  Orders;  Columns; 
Pilasters;  Base;  Shaft;  Capital;  Architrave;  Frieze;  Cor- 
nice; Arris;  Entecis;  Triglyphs;  Metopes;  Volutes;  Modules. 
Proportion  of  Arches;  Doorways;  Pediments;  Windows;  Bal- 
ustrades; Colonnades  aud  Arches. 

WORKING  DRAWINGS:  Details  of  Window  Frames  for  Brick 
and  Wooden  -Buildings;  Details  of  Framing:  Floors;  Par- 
titions; Joists  and  Girders;  Sills  and  Posts;  Rafters;  Attic 
Floor;  Roof.  Dormer  Construction.  Tenon  and  Tusk  Joint. 
Hanger.  Details:  Bulkhead;  Fireplace.  Details  of  Finish; 
Sliding  Doors;  Ironwork  In  Connection  with  Framing.  Details  of  Gutters. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DESIGN:  Utility;  Effect;  Unity;  Grouping;  Interiors;  Exteriors; 
Orders;  Moldings;  Greek  and  Hoinan  Moldings;  Pedestals;  Arcades;  Columns;  Pilas- 
ters; Imposts;  Balusters;  Doors  and  Windows;  Piers;  Capitals;  Spires;  Form  and 
Color.  Ornament:  Greek;  Egyptian;  Roman;  Byzantine;  Gothic;  Italian;  French; 
English.  Plans:  Rooms;  Stairways.  Entrance.  City  and  Country  Houses;  Office 
Buildings:  Light;  Heating;  Ventilation.  Churches  and  Public  Buildings. 

BUILDING  MATERIALS  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE:  Limes;  Cements  and  Mortars: 
Strength;  Proportions;  Data  for  Estimating  Cost.  Stone:  Granite;  Limestone; 
Marble;  Slate;  Testing  Building  Stone.  Brick:  Paving  Brick:  Fire  Brick;  Glazed 
and  Enameled  Brick;  Building  Brick.  Size;  Mortar;  Construction  of  Walls;  Hollow 
Walls;  Brick  Arches;  Brick  Veneer;  Fireplaces.  Terra  Cotta:  Composition  and 
Manufacture.  Durability;  Inspection.  Setting  and  Pointing.  Examples  of  Construc- 
tion. Iron  and  Steel:  Girders  and  Lintels;  Supports;  Bear- 
ing Plates;  Chimney  Caps,  etc.  Laths  and  Plastering.  Metal 
Laths;  Stucco.  Concrete.  Superintendence:  Necessity  for 
Superintendence.  Visits;  Setting  out  the  Building;  Inspecting 
Material;  Inspecting  Construction;  Costs;  Contracts. 

STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS:  Stresses  and  Deformations;  Ten- 
sion: Compression;  Shear;  Factors  of  Safety;  Working 
Stresses.  Beams:  Simple  Beams;  Cantilever  Beams;  Re- 
actions; Bending  Moments;  Moment  of  Inertia;  Center  of 
Gravity;  Safe  Loads;  I-Beams;  Deflection;  Beams  of  Uni- 
form Strength;  Continuous  Beams.  Columns:  Cross-sections; 
Radius  of  Gyration;  Designing.  Torsion:  Shafts  for  Trans- 
mitting Power:  Combined  Stresses.  Testing  Timber,  Brick, 
Cement,  Wrought  Iron,  Cast  Iron  and  Steel.  Resilience: 
Sudden  Loads  and  Impact:  Elastic  Resilience  of  Beams. 
Tension,  Compression,  Shear  and  Torsion. 


•DETAlL-OF-ONEeAL-WMlV-ftAMF.!- 


FOUNDATIONS: 
Foundations; 


Staking   Out.       Excavation;     Loads;     Artificial 
Timber;      Piles;      Bearing    Power;      Cofferdam; 


Wrought  Iron;  Cast  Iron;  Blast  Furnace  Slag;  Retaining  Walls;  Concrete;  Mixing; 
Laying;  Compresslve  Strength;  Period  of  Repose;  Variations  of  Proportions.  Shoring; 
Needling;  Bracing. 

MASONRY:  Classes  of  Masonry;  Culverts;  Wing  Walls;  Pointing;  Grouting;  Freezing; 
Brick  Masonry.  Cement:  Hydraulic;  Natural;  Portland;  Characteristics  of  Portland 
Cement;  Testing;  Effect  of  Age;  Quick  and  Slow  Set;  Specifications;  Mortar;  Pro- 
portions; Sand;  Water;  Strength  of  Mortar;  Shearing,  Compressive  and  Tensile 
Strength;  Effect  of  Frost;  Permanency;  Data;  Specifications. 

CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY:  Timber;  Shake;  Knots;  Quarter 
Sawing;  Seasoning;  Kinds  of  Wood;  Uses.  Framed  Structures: 
Joints;  Sills;  Posts;  Studs;  Bridging;  Flooring;  Par- 
titions; Lathing;  Trussed  Partitions,.  Roofs:  Jack  Rafters; 
Hip  and  Valley;  Mansard;  Gables;  Construction  of  Roofs: 
Shingles;  Flashing.  Balloon  Framing.  Siding;  Verandas; 
Arches;  Ceiling.  Joinery:  Joints;  Tongue  and  Groove;  Dove- 
tall;  Dowel:  Mortise  and  Tenon;  Keys.  Interior  Work;  Wain- 
scots; Paneling;  Door  Making;  Sliding  and  Folding  Doors;  Windows-  Sashes;  Glass. 
Splayed  Work.  Bending  Weed:  Veneering.  Blinds;  Hinges;  Interior  Finish. 

•JTAIR  BUILDING:  Materials;  Terms;  Classification.  Construction:  Treads;  Risers; 
Stringers;  Steps  and  Platform;  Molding;  Balustrades:  Hand  Rails.  Straight  Stair- 
ways; 'Winding  Treads;  Winders.  Open  and  Closed  Stringers;  Curved  Stringers. 
Quarter-Turn  Winding;  Half-Turn  Platform.  Winding  Stairways;  Circular  Stairway* 


427 


GRAPHIC  STATICS:  Force  Triangle;  Polygon;  Conditions  of  Equilibrium;  Stresses  in 
Truss,  In  Polygonal  Frame;  Reactions  of  Beams;  Concentrated  Loads;  Uniform  Loads; 
Overhanging  Beams.  Roof  Trusses:  Dead  and  Snow  Loads;  Stresses;  Wind  Loads; 
Fixed  Ends;  Truss  with  One  End  Free.  Abbreviated  Methods  for  Wind  Stress;  Com- 
clete  Stress'es  for  a  Triangular  Truss;  Ambiguous  Cases.  Unsymmetrical  Loads  and 
Trusses.  Stresses;  Design  Plate  Girders. 

STEEL  CONSTRUCTION:  Elements  and  Functions  of  Frame- 
work; Use  of  Handbooks;  Rolled  Shapes;  Tables.  Beams: 
Loads;  Effect  of  Openings;  Commercial  and  Practical  Con- 
siderations in  Design.  Columns:  Connections;  Shapes;  Se- 
lection; Calculation  of  Section;  Tables;  Use  of  Concrete 
Steel  Columns.  Trusses.  Types;  Determination  of  Loads; 
Shipping  and  Erection.  Details  of  Framing:  Connections  of 
Beams  to  Girders  and  Columns;  Plate  and  Box  Girder  Con- 
nections; Column  Caps  and  Bases;  Roof  Details.  Shop 
Drawings:  Processes  of  Manufacture;  Conventions;  Mill 
^^^  and  Shop  Invoices;  Checking;  Details  of  Work.  High  Build- 

nT   ^ t^iun, ,u.t«       I  ing  Construction:       Steel   Skeleton;     Limiting   Heights;     Laws; 

"-"  Effect  of   Wind.      Portal,    Knee   and   Diagonal   Bracing.      Vibra- 

I  tion;     Column    Loads.        Mill    Construction:      Requirements    of 

1  BEAM  BOX. GIRDER  Underwriters;     Slow   Burning   Construction;     Steel;     Details  of 

Connections.       Types  of   Construction. 

FIREPROOFING:  Material;  Parts  to  be  Protected;  Choice  of  Material;  Use  of  Material; 
Floor  and  Roof  Arches;  Comparison  of  Terra  Cotta  and  Concrete  Steel;  Expanded 
Metal;  Tests;  Suspended  Ceilings;  Furring;  Partitions;  Column  Coverings;  Fire- 
Resisting  Wood;  Paint;  Metal  Coverings;  Relation  of  Construction  to  Architect's 
Design.  Relation  of  Construction  to  Strength  of  Steel  Frame. 

CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS:  Classes;  Drawing  Up;  Seals;  Clauses;  Subletting; 
Assignment.  Failure  to  Complete  Work;  Insolvency;  Insurance;  Appliances;  Disputes; 
Condemned  Material.  Penalties;  Cost;  Monthly  Estimate;  Final  Acceptance;  Defi- 
nition of  "Engineer"  and  "Contractor."  Specifications:  Forms;  Clauses;  Material; 
Workmanship;  Performance;  Specifications  for  Stone  Work;  Building;  Lumber; 
Cement;  Mortar;  etc. 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 

HEATERS:  Stoves;  Furnaces;  Steam;  Hot  Water;  Electricity.  Furnaces:  Location; 
Parts;  Direct  and  Indirect  Draft;  Pipes  and  Ducts.  Care  and  Management.  Ventila- 
tion: Carbonic  Acid;  Location  of  Inlets  and  Outlets;  General  Considerations.  Heat 
Loss  from  Buildings.  B.  T.  U.  Calculations  and  Tables. 

STEAM  HEATING:  Radiators;  Systems  of  Piping; 
Wet  and  Dry  Returns;  Valves;  Pipe  Sizes;  Indi- 
rect Steam  Heating:  Heaters;  Stacks;  Ducts; 
Wall  Box;  Care  of  Systems.  Exhaust  Steam 
Heating:  Reducing  Valves;  Grease  Extractor;  Ex- 
haust Head;  Pumps  and  Traps;  Paul  System; 
Plenum  Method;  Efficiency  of  Heaters;  Fans; 
Factory  Heating;  Temperature  Regulators. 

HOT  WATER  HEATING:      Radiating  Surface;    Piping; 
Expansion   Tank;     Distribution;     Valves   and   Pipes; 
Location  of  Radiators.       Indirect  Hot  Water  Heating: 
Sizes;     Care   of   Hot   Water   Heaters. 

VENTILATION  OF  BUILDINGS:  Choice  of  Systems;  Calculations,  and  Hints  for  Heating 
and  Ventilating  Schoolhouses,  Theatres,  Apartment  Houses,  Greenhouses,  Factories,  etc. 

PLUMBING 

FIXTURES:       Bath    Tubs;     Water    Closets;     Lavatories;      Bowls;      Sinks;     Traps;     Pipes; 

Vents;  Connections;  Sewers  and  Cesspools.  Plumb- 
ing: Connections  for  Bath  Room.  Kitchen  Sink 
Connections.  Plumbing  Dwelling  Houses,  Apartment 
Houses,  Railroad  Stations,  Schoolhouses,  and  Fac- 
tories. Testing  and  Inspection. 

DOMESTIC  WATER  SUPPLY:  Friction  in  Pipes;  Pipe 
Lining;  Pumps;  Hydraulic  Rani;  Kitchen  Boiler; 
Coils;  Water-Back  Connections;  Circulation  Pipes; 
Laundry  Boilers;  Boilers  with  Steam  Coils;  Tem- 
perature Regulators. 

SEWAGE:  Systems;  Considerations  Governing  Choice. 
Design  and  Construction:  Topography;  Manholes; 
Grades;  Flushing;  House  Connections;  Ventilation; 
Catch  Basins;  Pumping 
Sedimentation;  Chemical 
Intermittent  Filtration. 

GAS  FITTING:  Pipes;  Meters;  Fittings;  Joints;  Risers; 
Location  of  Pipes;  Testing  Gas  Pipes.  Gas  Fixtures: 

Burners:  Batswing;  Fishtail;  Bunsen;  Argand;  etc.  Chandeliers.  Globes  and 
Shades.  Heating  and  Cooking  by  Gas.  Automatic  Hot-Water  Heaters.  Gas  Meters-: 
Position;  Dials;  Reading.  Gas  Machines. 


Heaters;     Pipe   Connections  and 


Stations.          Purification; 
Precipitation;       Irrigation; 


428 


Jfoof  ff/rc/er 


F/oor  ff/ro&r 


Diagram  of  one  Co/umn  Bay  Braced 
wftn  Rods  ft  resist  Wind  Pressure. 


eiraHrJ 
truff 


of  Diagonal '  ffod  Bmctnp 
to  Co/umru  arrfffoor  firt/fryL 


D/apram  of  one  Cb/umn  Say 
eracec/by  D/a#ofra/  Tfocts 
tores/sf 


Defa//  of  Connecf/on  of 
/(nee  Braces  fo  Co/umnj 
and  G /refers. 


Diagram  of  one  Column 
Bat/  Braced  by  Hnee 
P/afes  and  Angle-s   A) 
Wind  Pressure. 


Floor  G/r&er 


OOP         O        O        O 


.000000 


-  Poria/frace- 


TYPES 
WIND    BRACING 


Diagram  of  one  Oammn  Bay 
6fvcecf  by  Porfa/i  of  P/afc* 
and  Angfe 
Wind  Pressure. 


SPECIMEN  PAGE  FROM  INSTRUCTION  PAPER  ON  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


429 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENGINEERING 


INSTRUCTION  PAPERS  IN  THE  COURSE 


Arithmetic  (3  parts). 
Elementary     Algebra     and     Men- 
suration. 
Geometry. 

Mechanical    Drawing   (4   parts). 
Freehand   Drawing. 
Algebra  (2  parts). 
Perspective   Drawing. 
Mechanics  (2  parts). 


Building  Materials. 

Trigonometry    and    Logarithms. 

Strength  of  Materials  (2  parts). 

Foundations. 

Masonry. 

Statics. 

Steel  Construction  (3  parts). 

Fi  reproofing. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  COURSE 

INSTRUCTION  PAPERS  IN  THE  COURSE 


Arithmetic   (3  parts). 

Elementary  Algebra  and  Men- 
suration. 

Geometry. 

Mechanical  Drawing  (4  parts). 

Working  Drawings. 

Building  Superintendence  (2 
parts). 

Strength  of  Materials  (2  parts). 

Masonry. 

Carpentry  and  Joinery  (2  parts). 


Sheet  Metal  Work   (2  parts). 

Metal  Roofing. 

Cornice  Work. 

Electric  Wiring. 

Electric  Lighting. 

Heating      and      Ventilation 

parts). 

Plumbing  (2  parts). 
Contracts  and  Specifications. 
Legal  Relations. 


(3 


CARPENTERS'  COURSE 


INSTRUCTION  PAPERS  IN  THE  COURSE 


Arithmetic   (3  parts). 
Elementary     Algebra     and     Men- 
suration. 
Geometry. 

Mechanical   Drawing    (4   parts). 
Freehand  Drawing. 
Architectural  Drawing.  (2 parts). 


Perspective  Drawing. 

Building   Materials. 

Working    Drawings. 

Strength    of   Materials    (2   parts). 

Carpentry  and  Joinery  (2  parts). 

Stair  Building. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


INSTRUCTION  PAPERS  IN  THE  COURSE 


Arithmetic  (3  parts). 
Elementary     Algebra    and     Men- 
suration. 
Geometry. 

Mechanical  Drawing  (4  parts). 
Freehand  Drawing. 


Shades  and   Shadows. 

Architectural    Drawing.  (2  parts). 

Perspective  Drawing. 

Rendering. 

Study  of  the  Orders  (3  parts). 

Architectural  Letter.^. 


430 


DEHAlb  OF*  WINDOW  FRAMED 


JECTION-THRQ 
WINDOW-HEAD 


JECTION-THRO 
WINDOW*  JILL - 


Fig.  46. 
SPECIMEN  PLAT?  FROM  INSTRUCTION  PAPER  ON  ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING. 


431 


O 


$ 


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UJ 


432 


PARTIAL    LIST    OF    TEXTBOOK   WRITERS,    INSTRUCTORS,  AND 
EDITORS,    IN    THE    DEPARTMENT  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


WILLIAM  H.  LAWRENCE,  S.  B. 

Professor  Department  of  Architecture, 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

FRANK'A.  BOURNE,  M.  S. 

Architect,  Boston, 
Fellow,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technologs 

DAVID  A.  GREGG, 

Teacher  and  Lecturer,  Pen  and  Ink  Drawing, 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

H.  W.  GARDNER,  S.  B. 

Professor  Department  of  Architecture, 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

EDWARD  A.  TUCKER,  S.  B. 
Architectural  Engineer,  Boston. 

FRANK  CHOUTEAU  BROWN, 

Architect,  Boston, 
Author  of  "Letters  and  Lettering." 

HERBERT  E.  EVERETT, 

Professor  Department  of  Architecture 
University  of  Pennsylvania. 

CHARLES  L.  HUBBARD,  S.  B.,  M.  E. 

Heating  and  Ventilating  Expert,  Boston. 

EDWARD  NICHOLS, 

Architect,  Boston. 

GILBERT  TOWNSEND,   S.   B. 

With  Post  and  McCord,  New  York  City 

A.  E.  ZAPF,  S.  B. 

American  School  of  Correspondence. 

HERMAN  V.  VON  HOLST,  A.  B.,  S.  B 

Architect,  Chicago 

ROBERT  V.  PERRY,  B.  S.,  M.  E 

Armour  Institute  of  Technology. 

EDWARD  R.  MAURER,  B.  C.  E 

Professor  Department  of  Mechanics, 
University  of  Wisconsin. 

J.  R.  COOLIDGE,  JR 

Architect.  Boston 


433 


r 


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IQ- 
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N- 


SPECIMEN  PLATE  FROM  INSTRUCTION  PAPER  ON  CARPENTRY. 


434 


Modern  Engineering  Practice 

Editor-in-  Chief 
DR.    FRANK    WAKELEY    GUNSAULUS, 


President,  Armour  Institute  of  Technology 


This  valuable  and  unique  engineering  reference  work 
is  included  at  the  present  time  free  of  charge  in  all 
full  engineering  courses.  (See  third  following  page.) 

IT  is  the  standard  reference  work  of  the  engineering  field,  and  is  as 
necessary  to  the  progressive  man  as  the  telegraph,  telephone  or  type- 
writer to  the  business  man. 

d.  We  employ  no  solicitors  or  collectors,  preferring  to  use  the  large  sums 
ordinarily  paid  agents  in  giving  our  students  the  best  grade  of  instruction, 
and  including  with  it  such  valuable  reference  works  as  "  Modern  En- 
gineering Practice." 

^  The  Library  is  not  simply  a  duplication  of  the  student's  regular  text- 
books. It  is  one  of  the  most  comprehensive  and  authoritative  engineering 
reference  works  ever  published,  covering  all  phases  of  engineering.  It 
thus  supplements  the  student's  studies  and  answers  the  hundreds  of  ques- 
tions arising  daily  in  practice. 

Q  The  regular  text-books  number  about  fifty  in  the  full  courses.  They 
are  substantially  and  handsomely  bound  in  cloth,  and  not  cheap  paper 
pamphlets  such  as  are  usually  furnished  by  correspondence  schools. 

d,  When  writing  state  age,  previous  education,  present  occupation  and 
the  position  which  you  desire  to  be  fitted  for. 

200-page  Bulletin  giving  full  description  of  the  above 
and  fifty  short  courses  will  be  sent  free  on  request 


American  School  of  Correspondence 

CHICAGO,   ILLINOIS 


"A  machine,  doesn't  need  brains.     A  man  does.      You  must  be  a  machine  or  a  man. '' 

REFERENCE  LIBRARY  MODERN 
ENGINEERING  PRACTICE 

IN  TWELVE  vnT.fTMir.Q- 

A  Reliable  Guide  for  Engineers,  Mechanics,  Machinists  and  Students; 
Illustrating  and  Explaining  the  Theory,  Design,  Construction  and  Operation 
of  all  kinds  of  Machinery;  Containing  over  Six  Thousand  Pages,  Illustrated 
with  more  than  Four  Thousand  Diagrams,  Working  Drawings,  full-page 
Plates  and  Engravings  of  Machines  and  Tools 

PARTIAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
Volume  One 

Elements  of  Electricity — Current — Measurements — Electric  Wiring— 
Telegraphy — Including  Wireless  and  Telautograph— Insulators— Electric 
Welding. 

Volume  Two 

Direct  Current  Dynamos  and  Motors  —  Types  of  Dynamos  —  Motor 
Driven  Shops — Storage  Batteries — Automobiles. 

Volume  Three 

Electric  Lighting — Electric  Railways — Management  of  Dynamos  and 
Motors — Power  Stations. 

Volume  Four 

Alternating  Current  Generators — Transformers — Rotary  Converters — 
Synchronous  Motors — Induction  Motors — Power  Transmission— Mer 
cury  Vapor  Converter. 

Volume  Five 

Telephone  Instruments  —  Lines  —  Operation  —  Maintenance  —  Common 
Battery  System — Automatic  and  Wireless  Telephone. 

Volume  Six 

Chemistry — Heat — Combustion — Construction  and  Types  of  Boilers — 
Boiler  Accessories — Steam  Pumps. 

Volume  Seven 

Steam  Engines  —  Indicators  —  Valves,  Gears  and  Setting — Details — 
Steam  Turbine — Refrigeration — Gas  Engines. 

Volume  Eight 

Marine  Engines  and  Boilers  —  Navigation  —  Locomotive  Boilers  and 
Engines — Air  Brake. 

Volume  Nine 

Pattern  Making — Moulding — Casting — Blast  Furnace — Metallurgy- 
Metals — Machine  Design. 

Volume  Ten 

Machine  Shop  Took  --  Lathes  —  Screw  Cutting  —  Planers  —  Milling 
Machines— Tool  Making — Forging. 

Volume  Eleven 

Mechanical  Drawing  — Perspective  Drawing — Pen  and  Ink  Rendering 
— Architectural  Lettering. 

Volume  Twelve 

Systems — Heaters — Direct  and  Indirect  Steam  and  Hot  Water  Heating 
— Temperature  Regulators — Exhaust  Steam  Heating — Plumbing — 
Installing  and  Testing — Water  Supply — Ventilation — Carpentry 

"Next  to  knmoing  a  thing,  is  knowing  where  to  loot^  for  it, " 
435 


'  In  science,  read  the  newest  books  ;  in  literature,  the  oldest. 


IT  is  the  man  who  has  learned  through  long  experience  and  careful 
study  who  knows  best.      Years  of  experience  in  teaching  thousands 
of  students  living  in  every  portion  of  the  globe,  and  careful  study  of 
existing  industrial  conditions,  have  enabled  the  American  School  of  Cor- 
respondence constantly  to  enlarge  and  revise  its  work  so  as  best  to  adapt 
it  to  the  needs  of  practical  men. 

Q  The  text-books  of  the  American  School  of  Correspondence  have 
been  prepared  by  the  leading  college  professors,  engineers  and  experts  in 
this  country.  In  their  preparation  careful  study  has  been  given  to  actual 
shop  needs.  Simplicity,  brevity,  clearness  and  thoroughness  are  marked 
features. 

dt.  They  are  used  as  text-books  by  Harvard  University,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, Lehigh  University,  the  great  Westinghouse  Co.  in  its  shop  school, 
and  the  United  States  government  in  the  army  schools. 

d,  The  only  gold  medal  for  superior  excellence  in  Engineering  Education 
and  Technical  Publications  awarded  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  was  given 
to  the  American  School  of  Correspondence. 

(I,  There  has  been  on  the  part  of  the  students  of  the  School  a  great  need 
of  a  practical,  concise  and  thorough  engineering  reference  work — a  refer- 
ence work  which  would  supplement  their  studies  and  also  assist  them  in 
the  solution  of  such  problems  as  daily  confront  every  practical  man. 

d,  To  meet  this  need  the  school  has  compiled  its  twelve-volume  reference 
library  of  "  Modern  Engineering  Practice."  The  "  Library  "  is  edited 
by  Dr.  F.  W.  Gunsaulus,  President  of  Armour  Institute  of  Technology, 
assisted  by  a  corps  of  able  specialists  and  experts. 

d.  It  contains  6,000  pages,  8  x  10  inches  in  size,  is  fully  indexed,  pro- 
fusely illustrated,  and  substantially  bound  in  three-quarters  red  morocco. 

Ct,  The  ' '  Library  ' '  covers  the  broad  field  of  engineering,  and  includes, 
in  addition  to  the  school's  regular  work,  many  special  articles  on  such 
subjects  as  Wireless  Telegraphy,  Automobiles,  Gas  Engines,  etc.,  thus 
forming  a  complete  reference  work  on  the  latest  and  best  practice  in  the 
Machine  Shop,  Engine  Room,  Power  House,  Electric  Light  Station, 
Drafting  Room,  Boiler  Shop,  Foundry,  Pattern  Shop,  Blacksmith  Shop, 
Round  House,  Plumbing  Shop,  and  Factory. 


,  lil^e  friends,  should  be  fer»  and  well  chosen.  " 
436 


"Success  trvada  on  the  heeU  Of  every  right  effort" 


Courses  and  Tuition  Fees 

DEPARTMENT  OF  ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING 

Electrical  Engineering    Reference  Library  (  12  vols.  ) 

Paid  in     $5.00 
Advance  a  Month 

$3.00 
a  Month 

56.00 
52.00 
40  00 
40.00 
40.00 
40.00 

56.00 
56.00 
44.00 
40.00 
40.00 
40.00 

40.00 
40.00 
40.00 

100.00 
64.00 
64.00 
64.00 
44.00 
44.00 
44.00 

6400 
44.00 
44.00 

40.00 
40.00 
40.00 

7000 
65.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 

70.00 
70.00 
55.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 

50.00 
50.00 
50.00 

120.00 
80.00 
80.00 
80.00 
5500 
55.00 
55.00 

80.00 
55.00 
55.00 

50.00 
50.00 
50.00 

78.00 
72.00 
55.00 
55.00 
55.00 
65.00 

78.00 
78.00 
60.00 
55.00 
55.00 
55.00 

55.00 
55.00 
55.00 

90.00 
90.00 
90.00 
60.00 
60.00 
60.00 

90.00 
60.00 
60.00 

55.00 
55.00 
55.00 

Telephone  Practice  Reference  Library  (  12  vols.  ) 

DEPARTMENT  OF  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING 

Mechanical  Engineering  Reference  Library  (  12  vols.  ) 

Mechanical-Electrical  Engineering..  Reference  Library  (12  vols.) 
Sheet  Metal  Pattern  Drafting  Reference  Library  (12  vols.) 

Heating,  Ventilating  and  Plumbing..  Reference  Library  (12  vols.) 

DEPARTMENT  OF  STEAM  ENGINEERING 

Stationary  Engineering.  ..         ...  Reference  Library  (12  vols  ) 

Marine  Engineering  Reference  Library  (12  vols  ) 

Locomotive  Engineering  Reference  Library  (12  vols.) 

DEPARTMENT  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERING 

Complete  Civil  Engineering  Reference  Library  (12  vols  ) 

Railroad  Engineering  Reference  Library  (  12  vols.  ) 

DEPARTMENT  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Contractors'  and  Builders'  Course.  .  .Reference  Library  (12  vols.) 

DEPARTMENT  OF  TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING 

Cotton  Course      Textile  Cyclopedia  (5  vols.) 

Woolen  and  Worsted  Goods  Course..  Textile  Cyclopedia  (5  vols.) 
Knit  Goods  Course  Textile  Cyclopedia  (5  vols.) 

437 


Cyclopedia  of  Applied  Electricity 

SOME   OF   THE   WRITERS 

Prof.  F.  B.  Crocker,  head  of  Department  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Columbia  University;  author 
of  the  sections  on  Storage  Batteries  and  Management  of  Dynamo-Electric  Machinery. 

Prof.  William  Esty,  head  of  the  Department  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Lehigh  University;   author 
of  the  section  on  Alternating  Currents. 

H.  C.  Gushing,  Jr.,  Wiring  Expert  and  Consulting  Engineer:  author  of  the  section  on  Wiring  for 
Light  and  Power. 

Prof.  George  C.  SKaad,  University  of  Wisconsin:   author  of  sections  on  Power  Transmission,  Elec- 
tric Lighting  and  Power  Stations. 

J.  R.  Cra>.vatH,  Western 
Editor  of  the  Street  Railway  Jour- 
nal :  author  of  the  section  on  Street 
Railways. 

Prof.  Loviis  Derr.  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology. 

William  Boyrer,  formerly 
Division  Engineer,  New  York  and 
New  Jersey  Telephone  Co. 

Charles  TKorrv.  Chief  of 
Quadruples  Department,  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Co.;  author  of 
Telegraphy,  etc. 


2.5OO  Pages,   8  x  1O  Inches 


Bound    in 


Morocco 


Fully  Indexed 


PARTIAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Part  I. — Static  and  Dynamic  Electricity — Measurements — Wiring — Electric  Telegraph,  including  the 
Duplex  and  Quadruples— Wireless  Telegraphy— Telautograph — Testing  of  Insulators— Electric  Welding. 

Part  II.— Theory  of  Dynamo-Electric  Machinery— Design  and  Construction  of  Dynamos  and  Motors- 
Motor  Driven  Shops — Storage  Batteries,  including  Theory,  Management  and  Types. 

Part  III. — Incandescent  and  Arc  Lighting — Electric  Railways,  including  Car  Wiring,  Line  Construc- 
tion, Third  Rail  and  Multiple  Unit  Systems — Management  of  Dynamo-Electric  Machinery — Power  Station 
Work,  including  Boilers,  Engines  and  Electrical  Machinery. 

Part  IV. — Theory  of  Alternating  Currents — Alternators — Transformers — Synchronous  and  Induction 
Motors — Rotary  Converters — Power  Transmission — Mercury  Vapor  Converter. 

Part  V. — The  Telephone  —  Instruments  —  Line  Construction  —  Switchboards — Exchanges  —  Common 
Battery  System,  Operation,  Maintenance— Automatic  Telephone — Faults — Wireless" Telephony. 


438 


Cyclopedia    of    Engineering 

Editor-in-Chief 

LOUIS  DERR.  A.  ML.  S.  B., 

Associate  Professor  of  Physics,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 


A   FEW    OF   THE   AUTHORS 

Lionel  S.  Marks,  Assistant  Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  Harvard  University. 

Walter  S.  Leland.  Assistant  Professor  in  Naval  Architecture,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

George  C.  Shaad,  Assistant  Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Charles  L.  Griffin.  Mechan- 
ical Engineer,  Semet-Solvay 
Company. 

Francis  H.  Boyer,  Construct- 
ing Engineer. 

Charles  Dickerman,  Refrig- 
erating Engineer,  Pennsyl- 
vania Iron  Works  Company. 

H.  C.  Cushing,  Jr..  Consult- 
,  ing  Electrical  Engineer. 


Volumes 


3,000  Pages.  8x10  Inches. 
Bound  in  Three-Quarters 
Kod  Morocco  LeaUKer. 

Fully  Indejced 


PARTIAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Parti.  Heat— Chemistry—  Construction  of  Boilers — Types  of  Boilers — Boiler  Accessories — Steam 
Pumps — Elevators. 

Part  II.  The  Steam  Engine — Indicators — Valve  Gears — Thermodynamics — Refrigeration — Gas  and  Oil 
Engines. 

Part  III.  Marine  Boilers— Marine  Engines — Condensers — Navigation— Locomotive  Boilers  and  En- 
gines— The  Air  Brake — Automobiles. 

Part  IV.  Machine  Shop  Work — Systems  of  Warming — Principles  of  Ventilation — Mechanical  Draw- 
ing— Air  Compressors. 

Part  V.  Theory  of  Dynamo-Electric  Machinery — Direct  Current  Dynamos — Direct  Current  Motors — 
Management  of  Dynamo-Electric  Machinery — Electric  Lighting. 


439 


Cyclopedia  of  Modern  Shop  Practice 

Editor-in-Chi^f 

HOWARD   MONROE    RAYMOND.  B.  S. 


Dean,  Armour  Institute  of  Technology 


A    FEW    OF    THE    AUTHORS 

Frederick  W.  Turner,  Instructor  in  Machine  Shop  Work,  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston. 

Lionel  S.  Marks,  S.  B.,  M.  N.E.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 

John  Lord  Bacon,  Instructor  in 
Forge  Work,  Lewis  Institute,  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  Author 
of  "Forge  Practice." 

William  C.  Stimpson,  Instructor 
in  Foundry  Work  and  Forging,  Pratt  Insti- 
tute. 

Charles  L.  Griffin.  S.  B..  Mechan- 
ical Engineer,  Semet-Solvay  Co.,  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 

Walter  B.  Snow.  S.B.,  Mechan- 
ical Engineer,  B.  F.  Sturtevant  Co.,  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 

Edward  R.  Markham,  Consulting 
Mechanical  Engineer.  Instructor  in  Ma- 
chine Shop  Work,  Rindge  Manual  Training 
School,  formerly  Supt.  Waltham  Watch 
Tool  Co. 


JTo  u  r  Vo  I um  e s 

Bound  in  '••  Red  Morocco 
2,500  Pages,  8  x  10  Inches 
Fully  Indejced 


PARTIAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

•^ 

Vol.  I.  Machine  Shop  Work,  loathe.  Planer,  Shaper,  Milling  Machine,  Grinding  Machine,  Tool  Making, 
Hardening,  Thread  Cutting  Dies,  Drill  Jigs,  Motor  Driven  Shops. 

Vol.  II.  Pattern  Making,  Tools,  Machine  Design,  Belts,  Pulleys,  Metallurgy,  Blast  Furnace,  Iron, 
Steel,  Copper,  Foundry  Work,  Moulding,  Pouring,  Steel  Castings. 

Vol.  III.  Gas  and  Oil  Engines,  Producer  Plants,  Care  and  Management  of  Gas  Engine,  Automobiles, 
The  Motor,  Ignition,  Elevators,  Construction  of  Boilers,  Steam  Engine,  Steam  Turbine,  Management  of 
Dynamos  and  Motors,  Electric  Wiring. 

Vol.  IV.  Forging,  Welding,  Tool  Forging  and  Tempering,  Electric  Welding,  Sheet  Metal  Work,  Tin- 
smithing,  Mechanical  Drawing,  Working  Drawings,  Shop  Drawings,  Mechanism. 


440 


Size  of  Page 

8x10  in. 
Fully  Indexed 


Cyclopedia  of 
Drawing 

2  Volumes,  1200  Pages 
Bound  in  Half  Morocco 

1000   Illustrations,   including    Sections, 
Diagrams  and  Full  Page  Plates 

SOME  OF  THE  WRITERS 

Professor  Kenlson,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. 

Professor  C.  L.  Griffin,  formerly  Professor  of  Ma- 
chine Design,  Pennsylvania  State  College;  now  Me- 
chanical Engineer,  Semet-Solvay  Co. 

Professor  H.  W.  Gardner,  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology. 

Professor  H.  E.  Everett.  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

H.  V.  von  Hoist,  Architect.  Chicago. 

Frank  Choviteau  Brown.  Architect,  Boston. 

Professor  W.  H.  Lawrence.  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology. 

Wm.  Neubecker.  New  York  Trade  School. 

D.  A.  Gregg,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 


PARTIAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PBLTt    I. 

Mechanical  Drawing  —  Instruments  and  Materials,  Projections,  Developments,  Isometric. 
Shades  and  Sha.dows  —  Principles,  Problems,  Short  Methods. 

Freehand  Drawing  —  Flat  Ornament,  Light  and  Shade,  Form  Drawing.  Carved  Ornaments,  Rosettes, 
Capitals,  Pilasters. 

Pen  and  Ink  Rendering  —  Materials,  Values,  Accents,  Faults,  Pencil  Work,  Examples. 

Rendering  in  Wash  and  Color  —  Rendering  Elevations,  Sections,  Plans,  etc.,  in  Wash;  Water  Color 
Hints,  List  of  Colors  and  Combinations. 

Perspective  Drawing  —  Station  Point,  Vanishing  Points,  Ground  Line,  Horizon,  Line  of  Measures, 
Perspective  Plan,  One  Point  Perspective,  Curves,  Distortion. 

Architectural  Lettering  —  Study  of  Old  Examples,  Forms,  Proportion,  Composition. 

P&rt  II. 

Working  Drawings  *—  Scale  and  Aflembly  Drawings,  Blue   Printing,  Cams,  Pulleys,  Belts,  Gearing, 
Pencil  Layouts,  Working  Drawings,  Cost,  Order  Sheets. 

Machine  Design  —  Theoretical  and  Commercial  Considerations,  Calculations,  Friction,  Stresses,  Lubri- 
cation, Speed  Ratio,  Power,  Load,  Layout. 

Sheet   Metal    Pattern   Drafting  —  Intersections,    Developments,    Irregular    Shapes,    Triangulation, 
Approximate  Developments. 

Tin  smithing  —  Construction.  Tools,  Seaming   and  Wiring,  Workshop   Problems,  Practical  Problems  in 
Mensuration. 


441 


Practical 
Lessons  in 
Electricity 


PRACTICAL 

LESSONS . 

ELECTRICITY 


300  Pages 

8x10    inches 

BOUND  IN 

Red    Buckram 


FULLY    ILLUSTRATED 

With   Sections,  Diagrams,  Tables  and  Formulae 

CLEAR  CONCISE  COMPREHENSIVE 


Combines  the  a.dva.ntages  of  a. 

Text  Book  and  Reference  Work 


BRIEF    OUTLINE    OF    CONTENTS 

Storage  B eateries.  By  PROF.  F.  B.  CROCKER,  Columbia  University:  Types;  General 
Principles;  Chemical  Action;  Data  Sheets;  Edison  Storage  Battery;  Setting  up;  Electrolyte;  Cad- 
mium Test;  Charging;  Discharging;  Efficiency,  Troubles  and  Remedies;  Sulphating,  Buckling,  etc.; 
Testing;  Application  of  Storage  Batteries;  Portable  Batteries  for  Automobiles,  Boats,  Telegraph  and 
Telephone;  Regulation;  Connection;  Boosters,  Shunt,  Series  Compound;  Differential  and  Constant 
Current. 

Electric   Wiring.  By   H.    C.    CUSHING,   Jr.    (author   of    "Standard   Wiring") :      Dynamo 
Installation;  The  Switch  Board;  Care  of  Dynamos;  Starting  Dynamos  or  Motors;    Motor  Installation; 
Tables; 'Outside,    Inside   and    Fixture    Wiring;    Transformers;    Three- Wire    System;    Poles   and    Pole 
Setting;  Wiring  Formulae;   Arc  Light  Wiring;    Conduit   Work;    Cut-outs;    Switches;   Distribution   of 
Light;   Arc  and   Incandescent   Systems;    Inspection;  Electric  Bells;  Burglar  and  Fire  Alarms,  etc. 

Electric  Current.  By  L.  K.  SAGER,  S.  B.:  Volt,  Ampere,  Ohm;  Resistance;  Calculation 
for;  Specific  Resistance;  Conductivity;  Tables;  Ohm's  Law;  Application;  Circuits;  Series  and  Parallel; 
Battery  Circuits;  Quantity;  Energy;  Power;  Coulomb;  Joule;  Watt;  Electrical  Supply. 

Elements  of  Electricity,  By  L.  .K.  Sager,  S.  B.:  Magnets;  Experiments;  Static, 
Positive  and  Negative  Electricity;  Conductors,  Insulation;  Electroscope;  Electrophorus;  Electric 
Machine;  Condensers,  Leyden  Jar;  Types  of  Cells,  Voltaic,  Leclanche,  Gravity,  Bunson,  Electro- 
magnets; Induction  Coil,  Electrolysis;  Electrotyping;  Electro-Plating;  The  Telephone;  The  Telegraph; 
Morse  Sounder,  Alphabet,  Key,  Battery,  Relay. 


442 


DJMIV.  OF  CALIF.  LIBRARY,  LOS  ANGELES 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


001  262  976    2 


